QL 


B    3    575    5bD 


GIFT  OF 


BIOLOGY 
UfiRARY 

i 


PLATE   I 


REPRESENTATIVES  OF  THE  SEVEN  PRINCIPAL  ORDERS  OF  INSECTS 


!\ 

LI 


PLATE  I. 

REPRESENTATIVES  OF  THE  SEVEN  PRINCIPAL  ORDERS  OF  INSECTS. 

1.  Orthoptera — Hippiscus  rugosus. 

2.  Diptera — Exoprosopa  caliptera. 

3.  Hemiptera — Rasahus  biguttatus. 

4.  Lepidoptera — Papilio  turnus. 

5.  Coleoptera — Buprestis. 

6.  Hymenoptera — Vespa  germanica. 

7.  Neuroptera — Polystcechotes  punctatus. 

All  natural  size. 


STATE.  HORTICULTURAL  COMMISSION 

LLLWOOD    COOPE.R,  Commissioner 


ENTOMOLOGY  IN  OUTLINE 


Compiled  for  the  Use  of  County  Horticultural 
Commissioners  and  Fruit-Growers 


BY 


JOHN  I5AAC 


W.  W.  SHANNON 


5ACRAMLNTO 

-       -       -      SUPERINTENDENT  STATE  PRINTING 
1906 


*\w 

"  v» 


CALIFORNIA  STATE.  COMMISSION  OF  HORTICULTURE.. 


ELLWOOD  COOPER Commissioner Santa  Barbara 

JOHN  ISAAC Secretary ....San  Francisco 

ED.  M.  EHRHORN Deputy.  ..,..  Mountain  View 

E.  K.  CARNES    Assistant.,  ..Riverside 

O.  E.  BREMNER    Assistant _.' Santa  Rosa 

CHAS.  T.  PAINE Assistant Redlands 

FREDRICK  K.  MASKEW ...Assistant Long  Beach 

GERTRUDE  BIRD ..Stenographer ...Sacramento 


OFFICE: 

ROOM  41,  STATE  CAPITOL,  SACRAMENTO. 
BRANCH  OFFICE,  ROOM  11,  FERRY  BUILDING,  SAN  FRANCISCO. 


CONTENTS. 


Page 

SYSTEM    IX   XATTRE 7 --.-  5 

CLASSIFICATION 9 

THE  STRUCTURE  OF  [NSECtS 13 

THE  TRANSFORMATION  OF  INSECTS 26 

THE  ORDERS  OF  INSECTS— 

ORTHOPTERA.     ^Grasshoppers,  Cricket*.  Cockroaches,  etc-.) 29 

HEMIPTERA.     (Plant-bugs,  Aphids.  Scale-bugs,  etc.) 38 

NEUROPTERA.     (Dragon-flies.  Lace-winged  flies,  etc.) 59 

LEPIDOPTERA.     (Butterflies  and  Moths) 65 

D1PTERA.     « Two-winged  Hies  of  all  kinds) 83 

COLEOPTERA.    (Beetles  of  all  kinds) _ 96 

HYMENOPTERA.     (Bees.  \Va.-i-s.  Ants,  etc.) 108 


330603 


ACKNOWLEDGMENT* 


To  P.  Blakiston's  Sons  &  Co.,  Philadelphia,  we  are  indebted  for  the 
use  of  the  cuts  numbered  below,  which  appeared  in  the  excellent  work 
by  Professor  J.  W.  Folsom,  entitled  "Entomology,  with  Special  Refer- 
ence to  its  Biological  and  Economic  Aspects":  Cuts  numbered  Fig.  1, 
2,  3,  4,  6,  7,  8,  9,  10,  11,  12,  13,  14,  15,  16,  17,  18,  19,  20,  21,  22,  23,  24, 
25,  26,  .27,  28,  29,  30,  31,  32,  33,  34,  35,  36,  38,  41,  56,  57,  59,  60,  68,  80, 
84,  87,  110. 


ENTOMOLOGY  IN  OUTLINE 

Arranged  for  Horticultural  Commissioners,  Fruit-Growers,  and  Farmers* 

BY  JOHN  ISAAC. 


Some  simple  work,  which  shall  present,  in  plain,  every-day  language, 
information  about  the  insect  world,  has  long  been  desired  by  our  County 
Horticultural  Commissioners  and  fruit-growers.  As  a  rule,  these  men 
are  not  scientific  entomologists,  nor  do  they  need  be,  but,  at  the  same 
time,  it  is  necessary  that  they  should  know  something  of  insects  and 
their  modes  of  living,  and  be  able  to  distinguish  between  insect  friends 
and  enemies,  in  order  that  they  may  protect  the  one  and  destroy  the 
other. 

It  is  much  to  be  able  to  tell  to  what  order  an  insect  belongs,  more  to 
know  to  what  family  in  that  order  it  belongs,  and  this  is  as  far  as  the 
average  commissioner  or  orchardist  can  hope  to  go;  to  go  farther  and 
trace  it  to  genera  and  species  is  the  work  of  the  trained  entomologist, 
and  is  a  life  work  alone  for  any  man. 

It  is  the  desire  of  the  writer  to  place  such  knowledge  before  his 
readers,  in  the  simplest  manner,  divested  as  far  as  possible  of  all  scien- 
tific and  technical  terms.  Those  who  desire  more  can  acquire  it  from 
the  scientific  text-books.  We  do  not  offer  this  as  a  scientific  disserta- 
tion on  entomology,  nor  as  giving,  by  any  means,  all  that  is  known  of 
that  science,  but  simply  as  an  introduction  to  every-day  men  of  the 
more  general  facts  which  they  should  know  in  the  pursuit  of  their  call- 
ing for  the  benefit  of  their  constituents. 

\ 

SYSTEM  IN  NATURE. 

Success  in  any  pursuit  depends  upon  system,  and  this  is  essentially 
true  of  the  study  of  any  branch  of  natural  history.  As  we  gaze  around 
us  upon  the  material  world,  we  behold  a  conglomerate  mass  of  life  that 
may  astonish,  or  even  oppress,  us  with  its  multitudinous  forms,  but 
until  we  can  take  each  individual  object  and  trace  it  down  to  its  proper 
place  in  the  order  of  nature,  it  has  no  meaning  for  us.  To  accomplish 
this,  the  natural  sciences, — geology,  botany,  biology,— have  been  estab- 
lished, and  these  again  have  been  subdivided,  until  every  object  can  be 
assigned  to  its  proper  place  and  its  life  and  peculiarities  known  and 
described.  There  is  no  field  in  which  subdivision  has  been  called  out. 


t   V'     t  CCUMFORNIA  STATE  COMMISSION  OF  HORTICULTURE. 


iiij'the  natural  sciences;  as  a  result,  We  have  a  perfect  system 
of  classification,  which  enables  us  to  recognize  and  study  with  the 
greatest  ease  any  natural  object  which  comes  under  our  observation. 

The  earth  naturally  is  divided  into  three  great  kingdoms — the  min- 
eral, the  vegetable,  and  the  animal.  The  mineral  is  the  first  and  the 
oldest.  Without  it,  neither  of  the  others  could  exist.  In  fact,  the 
vegetable  and  animal  kingdoms  may  be  considered  as  subordinate  to 
the  mineral  and  springing  from  it,  for  the  material  part  of  all  vegetable 
and  animal  is  mineral,  and  so  soon  as  the  vital  element  has  departed, 
they  restore  to  the  mineral  what  they  have  borrowed  from  it.  The 
vegetable  kingdom  comes  next  in  order,  for  there  could  be  no  animal 
life  until  there  was  abundant  vegetable  life  to  support  it. 

Our  business  now  is  only  with  the  animal  kingdom,  and  with  only 
one  branch,  though  a  very  important  branch,  of  that.  This  kingdom 
has  been  divided  into  two  subkingdoms,  known  as  the  Vertebrata 
and  the  Invertebrata.  The  Vertebrata  include  all  animals  having  a 


FIG.  1.  Diagram  to  express  the  fundamental  structure  of  an  Arthropod. 
a,  antenna;  al,  alimentary  canal ;  b,  brain;  d,  dorsal  vessel ;  ex,  exo- 
skeleton;  I,  limb;  n,  nerve  chain  ;  s,  subesophageal  ganglion.  (After 
Schmeil.) 

backbone,  as  mammals,  birds,  fishes,  and  reptiles.  The  Invertebrata 
cover  all  that  class  of  animals  which  have  no  backbone,  or  vertebra, 
and  this  is  by  far  the  larger  and  more  important  branch  of  the  animal 
kingdom,  as  it  includes  a  vastly  greater  number  of  forms  and  is  more 
numerous  in  its  individuals  than  is  the  other. 

The  Invertebrata  have  been  divided  into  eight  branches,  as  follows: 

Protozoa,  which  includes  the  lowest  forms  of  animal  life.  These  are 
single-celled  animals,  many  or  most  of  them  exceedingly  minute,  or  even 
microscopic  in  size,  and  without  definite  shape.  In  most  cases  repro- 
duction is  effected  by  subdivision. 

Poriferata,  which  are  animals  a  stage  higher  in  their  development, 
and  including  sponges  and  kindred  forms. 

Ccelenterata,  in  which  we  find  the  jelly-fishes  and  corals. 

Echinodermata,  which  includes  the  sea-eggs  or  sea-urchins  and  the 
star-fishes. 

Vermes,  which  covers  the  various  forms  of  worms,  leeches,  and  their 
kindred. 

Molluscoidea.  This  is  confined  to  two  groups  of  aquatic  animals,  the 
Brachipoda  and  Polyzoa.  The  first  of  these  was  formerly  placed  in  the 


ENTOMOLOGY    IX    OUTLINE SYSTEM    IX    NATURE,  i 

Mollusca,  and  the  latter  in  the  Zoophytes,  but  they  were  found  to  be 
more  nearly  related  to  each  other  than  to  the  branches  in  which  they 
had  been  included  and  the  Molluscoidea  was  erected  for  them. 

M <.>llv sea  embraces  what  is  commonly  known  as  shell-fish,  while  the 
land  forms  are  represented  by  snails  and  slugs. 

Arthropoda.  This  is  the  branch  in  which  we  are  especially  inter- 
ested. It  is  separated  into  two  divisions:  the  Tracheata  and  Branchiata. 
The  Tracheata  are  aerial  animals,  which  derive  their  oxygen  from  the 
air  by  tracheaB  or  tubes.  This  division  includes  insects,  myriapods, 
centipedes,  thousand-legged  worms,  etc.,  and  the  Arachnida  (spiders, 
scorpions,  etc.).  The  Branchiata  are  aquatic  animals,  which  breathe 
through  branchia?,  or  gills,  or  sometimes  through  the  whole  surface  of 
the  body.  There  is  but  one  class  under  this  division,  the  Crustacea, 
including  crabs,  lobsters,  shrimps,  etc.  The  common  sow-bug  is  a  land 
form  of  this  branch. 

Having  now  reached  our  subject,  and  traced  the  insect  group  down 
to  its  proper  place,  we  will  proceed  to  deal  with  this,  class  by  itself. 
The  following  diagram  will  present  to  the  reader  the  position  of  the 
class  In*ecta  in  its  relation  with  creation: 

MINERAL. 

j 

NATURAL  KINGDOM.    '  VEGETABLE 

(  VERTEBRATA. 

Protozoa. 

ANIMAL.        <J  Poriferata. 

Coelenterata. 

T  i  Echinodermata. 

I  INVERTEBRATA.  J.  _. 

I  Vermes. 

Arthropoda. 

Molluscoidea. 

Mollusca. 

The  branch  Arthropoda  may  be  presented  in  tabular  form,  as  fol- 
lows : 

(  TRACHEATA  f  Class  1.  Insecta. 

(Breathing  by  tracheae)  •{'  Class  2.  Myriapoda. 


ARTHROPODA 


I  Class  3.  Arachnida. 
BRAXCHIATA  r 

(Breathing  by  branchia?)  \  Class  4.  Crustacea. 


Conspicuous  examples  of  the  Crustacea  are  lobsters,  crawfish,  crabs, 
shrimps,  etc.,  while  the  terrestrial  forms  are  represented  by  the  sow- 
bugs,  which  are  so  common  in  damp  locations,  and  which  are  frequently 
mistaken  by  young  entomologists  for  members  of  the  Myriapoda. 

Class  1,  Insect  a,  is  the  only  one  with  which  we  have  any  immediate 
concern,  although  it  is  necessary  to  understand  something  of  the  other 
air-breathing  classes,  which  are  so  nearlv  related  to  the  insects,  and 


s 


CALIFORNIA  STATE  COMMISSION  OP  HORTICULTURE. 


among  which  we  find  forms  beneficial  or  injurious  to  our  fields  and 
orchards. 

The  Crustacea  are  of  little  interest  to  us,  except  as  members  of  the 
Arthropoda.     The  members  of  this  class  are  chiefly  aquatic,  and  are 

grouped  with  the  insects  because  the 
general  structure  is  the  same. 

The  distinguishing  feature  of  the 
Arthropoda  is  that  the  bodies  are  seg- 
mented; that  is,  they  are  composed  of 
a  series  of  rings  fitted  into  each  other 
or  articulated.  In  some  classifications 
this  class  is  designated  as  the  Articu- 
lata,  and  is  made  to  include  the  Vermes, 
or  worms,  which  are  also  segmented. 
The  latter,  however,  properly  belong 
in  a  class  by  themselves,  and  the  Arthro- 
poda may  be  stated  to  include  all 
segmented  or  ringed  animals  with  legs. 
It  is  by  far  the  most  important  of  all  the  subkingdoms,  and  includes  a 
larger  number  of  species  than  all  the  others  combined.  The  Crustacea 
fit  the  description  above  and  are  naturally  included  in  the  same  sub- 
kingdom  with  the  insects. 

The  Myriapoda  come  more  directly  under  our  view.     They  are  land 
animals  and,  in  some  cases,  are  very  injurious  to  crops.     The  centi- 


FIG.  2.    A  diplopod  (Spirobolas  marginalus) 
Natural  size. 


FIG.  3.    A  centipede  (Scolopendra  heros).    About  two  thirds  the  maximum  length. 

pedes  and  millipedes  are  included  in  this  class.  Some  of  these  are  very 
minute  and  others  attain  great  size.  One  of  the  smaller  of  the  centi- 
pedes sometimes  appears  in  vast  numbers  in  damp  locations  and  does 
great  damage  to  young  plants. 

The  Arachnida  include  the  whole  of  the  spider  family.  They  are 
distinguished  from  insects  by  the  fact  that  their  members  generally 
have  eight  legs,  while  insects  have  but  six.  They  pass  through  no 


KNTOMOLOGY    IX    OUTLINE CLASSIFICATION. 


9 


metamorphosis,  the  young  resembling  the  matured  members  in  every- 
thing except  size,  and  they  have  no  antennae.  Some  of  our  greatest 
orchard  pests  are  found  in  this  group,  among  them  being  the  red  spider 


FIG.  4.    A  scorpion  (Buth «*).    Natural  size. 

and  various  mites;  the  ticks,  which  so  trouble  our  poultry  and  live 
stock,  also  belong  to  this  class,  as  do  the  phytopti,  which  infest  our 
pear  trees  and  grapevines.  The  disease 
known  as  the  "itch"  among  men  is  also 
caused  by  a  member  of  this  family,  called 
the  itch  mite.  Some  of  the  mites,  during 
the  larval  or  undeveloped  stage,  have 
six  legs,  acquiring  their  entire  comple- 
ment of  eight  only  when  fully  developed, 
and  the  phytopti  have  but  four  legs  at 
any  period  of  their  existence.  These, 
however,  are  exceptions  to  the  rule — 
that  members  of  this  class  have  eight 
legs.  It  will  be  observed  from  the  above 
that  some  of  our  most  troublesome  pests 
are  found  in  this  class,  but  there  are  also 
some  that  are  beneficial.  In  fact,  very 
many  of  the  spiders,  which  are  generally 
predaceous,  perform  a  beneficial  work  in 
keeping  down  injurious  species. 


FIG.  5.  Six-spotted  mite  (Tetranychus 
macuiata).  a,  insect,  much  enlarged ; 
b,  tarsus ;  c,  rostrum  and  palpus,  still 
more  enlarged ;  rf,  tip  of  palpus,  still 
more  enlarged. 


CLASSIFICATION. 

In  order  to  place  properly  an  insect  or 
other  natural  object,  a  system  of  classi- 
fication is  necessary.     As  stated  before,  we  have  three  great  kingdoms- 
All  objects  have  distinguishing  characteristics  which  place  them  nat- 
urally in  one  or  the  other  of  these,  and  we  know  at  a  glance  to  which 


10  CALIFORNIA  STATE  COMMISSION  OF  HORTICULTURE. 

they  belong.  Everything  that  lives,  breathes,  walks,  flies,  or  swims, 
everything  with  fur,  feathers,  or  scales,  we  know  belongs  to  the 
animal  kingdom.  But  among  animals  there  are  great  dissimilarities. 
As  stated,  one  great  portion  has  an  articulated  backbone  or  vertebra? 
and  another,  and  more  important  class,  has  none;  so  our  great  animal 
kingdom  branches  off  into  two  forks,  and  these  are  known  as  subking- 
doms.  It  is  still  easy  to  tell  to  which  of  these  an  animal  belongs,  for 
every  child  can  tell  at  a  glance  whether  it  has  a  backbone  or  not.  So 
far  our  task  is  easy,  but  there  are  great  points  of  difference,  even  among 
backbone  and  non-backbone  animals.  The  snake,  the  bird,  and  the 
horse  all  have  backbones  and,  therefore,  all  belong  to  the  subkingdom 
Vertebrata,  but  they  have  little  else  in  common,  so  the  Vertebrata  are 
again  divided  into  four  classes — mammalia,  birds,  reptiles,  and  fishes. 
Each  of  these  again  is  divided  and  subdivided  according  to  well-marked 
peculiarities  common  to  the  whole  group,  until  we  get  down  to  the 
species  and  the  individual.  This  has  been  explained  in  the  preceding 
pages,  where  we  have  followed  the  insect  down  to  its  place  in  the 
animal  kingdom,  through  the  Invertebrata,  Arthropoda,  and  Tracheata. 
So  by  means  of  the  following  stages  we  can  trace  an  insect  down  to  its 
natural  place: 

Kingdom, 

Subkingdom, 

Branch, 

Class, 

Order, 

Family, 

Genus, 

Species, 

Individual. 

To  illustrate,  we  will  take  our  common  swallow-tailed  butterfly,  and 
work  it  down  to  its  final  place: 

Kingdom  =  Animal. 

Subkingdom  =  Invertebrata. 

Branch  =  Arthropoda. 

Class  =  Hexapoda. 

Order  =  Lepidoptera. 

Genus  =  Papilio. 

Species  =  Rutulus. 

All  of  the  species  Rutulus  are  alike.  Where  there  are  slight  vari- 
ations, these  are  not  fixed,  but  found  only  in  the  individuals.  With 
different  members  of  the  genus  Papilio,  however,  there  are  very  distinct 
differences,  yet  all  have  a  general  similarity,  enough  to  group  them  in 
one  genus,  so  all  the  members  of  the  genus  Papilio  have  characters  in 


KXTOMOLOGY    IX    OUTLINE CLASSIFICATION.  11 

common  with  all  other  butterflies  and  are  grouped  with  them  in  the 
order  Lepidoptera. 

Really,  the  first  four  of  these  stages  concern  us  but  little.  We  all 
know  to  what  kingdom  an  animal  belongs,  equally  to  what  subkingdom. 
Neither  the  branch  nor  the  class  will  bother  us  much,  although  the 
knowledge  of  very  many  people  stops  at  this  and  they  confound  many 
of  the  other  members  of  the  Arthropoda  with  the  class  Hexapoda,  and 
regard  spiders,  centipedes,  scorpions,  and,  in  fact,  all  things  that  creep 
or  crawl,  and  are  not  beasts,  birds,  reptiles,  or  fishes,  with  insects.  It 
is  after  we  have  decided  that  the  object  of  our  interest  is  an  insect  that 
the  trouble  begins.  It  is  sometimes  very  difficult  to  decide  to  what 
order  it  belongs.  It  is  much  to  know  this,  and  much  more  to  know  the 
family.  Beyond  this  point  it  is  unnecessary  for  the  average  entomologist 
to  go.  In  the  case  of  our  more  common  insects,  however,  it  is  well  to 
be  able  to  recognize  them  by.  their  generic  and  specific  names,  and  with 
an  acquaintance  with  the  family  to  which  they  belong,  they  can  readily 
be  traced  to  their  species. 

It  is  sometimes  necessary  to  enter  into  closer  subdivisions,  and,  to 
this  end,  a  higher  and  a  lower  section  is  provided,  designated  by  the 
prefix  super  or  sub,  as  simper-family  and  sw6-family,  classing  them 
above  or  below  the  regular  family  as  their  characteristics  seem  to 
indicate. 

Dismissing  the  greater  and  more  general  divisions,  we  now  come  to 
the  orders,  and  here  we  are  met  with  confusion.  It  would  seem  as 
though  science,  or  at  least  scientists',  instead  of  making  matters  clear, 
as  they  should,  take  a  delight  in  confusing.  A  student  no  sooner  gets 
the  system  of  nomenclature  of  a  science  firmly  fixed  in  his  memory,  or 
the  classification  properly  versed  in  his  mind,  than  some  new  authority 
steps  forward,  and,-  in  order  to  keep  up  with  the  times,  the  student 
has  to  unlearn  all  and  learn  over  asjain. 

There  are  several  groups  or  orders  of  insects,  ranging  from  seven  to 
thirty-four,  according  to  the  authority.  The  commonly  accepted  num- 
ber of  orders  has  been  seven.  Westwood  gives  us  thirteen,  ComstoQk 
makes  it  nineteen,  and  Kellogg,  the  latest  authority,  gives  us  nineteen, 
but  makes  changes  in  Comstock's  names  and  arrangement.  The  differ- 
ences are  in  the  minor  groups  or  species. 

There  are  six  wTell-defmed  orders:  Orthoptera,  Hemiptera,  Cole- 
optera,  Diptera,  Hymenoptera,  and  Lepidoptera.  Then  there  is  the 
seventh,  the  Neuroptera.  Now  it  is  an  easy  matter  to  assign  an  insect 
to  any  one  of  the  six  when  it  belongs  there,  but  there  are  numbers  of 
insects  w^hich  do  not  clearly  belong  to  any  one  of  these,  and  the  order 
Neuroptera  has  furnished  a  dumping-ground  for  most  of  them.  When 
the  entomologist  found  an  insect  which  he  could  not  clearly  locate,  he 
called  it  a  Neuropteron,  and  let  it  go  at  that.  This  will  answer  as  well, 


12  CALIFORNIA  STATE  COMMISSION  OF  HORTICULTURE. 

for  the  purpose  of  our  readers,  probably,  as  any,  as  the  more  minute 
divisions,  while  undoubtedly  correct,  are  more  confusing  and  less  suit- 
able for  the  non-professional.  So  we  will  take  the  seven  orders,  as 
follows: 

Orthoptera:  The  straight- winged;  as  grasshoppers,  crickets, 
cockroaches,  etc. 

Hemiptera:  The  half-winged;  as  plant  bugs,  aphids,  scale  bugs,  etc. 

Cpleoptera:  The  sheath-winged;  as  beetles  of  all  kinds. 

Diptera:  The  two- winged;  as  two- winged  flies  of  all  kinds. 

Hymenoptera:  The  membrane-winged;  as  bees,  wasps,  ants,  etc. 

Lepidoptera:  The  scale- winged;  as  butterflies  and  moths. 

Neuroptera:  The  nerve-winged.  This  order  includes  all  the 
rest;  as  dragon-flies,  lace-winged  flies,  etc. 

The  more  minute  division,  according  to  Comstock,  includes  the  fol- 
lowing, which  have  principally  been  removed  from  the  last-named 
order  and  erected  into  separate  orders: 

Thysanura:  The  bristle-tails,  spring-tails,  fish-moths,  etc. 
Ephemerida:  Mayflies. 
Odonata:  Dragon-flies. 
Plecoptera:  Stone-flies. 
Isopoda:  Termites  or  white  ants. 
Corrodentia:  Book  lice. 
J     Malophaga:  Bird  lice. 
Dermaptera:  Earwigs. 
Physopoda:  Thrips. 
Mecaptera:  Scorpion-flies. 
Trichoptera:  Caddice-flies. 
Syphonaptera:  Fleas. 

These'  minor  orders  are  not  of  much  interest  to  the  average  man, 
so  it  will  not  be  out  of  place  to  consider  them  in  their  connection  with 
the  other  orders  which  contain  the  great  bulk  of  insects  important  to 
us,  from  either  their  beneficial  or  their  destructive  standpoint. 

We  have  now  some  idea  of  the  manner  in  which  insects  are  divided 
into  various  classes,  and  it  is  necessary  that  we  should  learn  the  dis- 
tinguishing features  of  them,  in  order  that  we  may  know  to  which  of 
the  various  orders  and  families  they  belong.  This  we  shall  endeavor 
to  make  plain;  but  first  it  is -necessary  to  know  what  an  insect  is,  and 
something  of  the  peculiarities  which  separate  it  from  the  other  branches 
of  the  animal  world.  After  considering  this,  we  shall  take  up  the 
principal  orders  and  point  out  wherein  they  differ  one  from  the  other. 


ENTOMOLOGY    IN    OUTLINE — STRUCTURE    OF    INSECTS.  13 


THE  STRUCTURE  OF  INSECTS. 

The  external  structure  of  insects  is  termed  the  exo-skeleton.  In  the 
Vertebrata,  the  bony  framework  of  the  body  is  internal  and  supports 
the  muscular  and  nervous  systems,  which  are  attached  to  the  outside 
of  the  osseous  or  bony  system.  With  the  insects,  the  reverse  is  the 
case.  Here  the  skeleton  is  a  hard,  horny  crust,  composed  largely  of  a 
substance  called  chitine,  and  it  is  situated  on  the  outer  surface,  all  the 
muscles  and  other  organs  of  the  body  being  attached  to  the  inside, 
instead  of  the  outside,  of  the  skeleton.  It  is  really  a  many-jointed 
tube,  varying  in  size  in  different  species,  and  composed  of  thirteen 
rings,  most  of  them  so  articulated  as  to  be  movable  at  the  will  of  the 
insect.  Of  these,  the  first  composes  the  head,  and  is  the  most  distinct. 
Three  are  fused  together  in  the. thorax,  and,  in  most  species,  appear  as 
one,  there  being  no  well-defined  mark  between  the  segments,  which  are 
immovably  joined  to  each  other.  In  the  last  section  of  the  body  the 
rings  are  loosely  articulated  and  freely  movable,  being  joined  together 
with  a  yielding  membrane,  allowing  the  insect  the  widest  freedom  of 
movement.  It  must  not  be  supposed,  however,  that  these  rings,  or  seg- 
ments, are  composed  of  one  solid,  unyielding  piece,  and  that  their  only 
motion  is  at  the  joints.  Each  ring  is  composed  of  many  plates,  more 
or  less  movable,  to  accommodate  the  needs  of  the  insect  and  to  allow 
the  movement  of  its  various  organs  of  locomotion,  flight,  etc.  This 
outer  integument,  or  case,  varies  very  greatly  in  density  in  different 
insects;  in  some  it  is  very  thin,  and  easily  crushed,  while  in  others  it  is 
excessively  hard.  In  some  of  the  beetles,  for  instance,  the  wing  covers 
are  so  hard  that  it  is  difficult  to  force  a  pin  through  them. 

An  insect  is  divided  into  three  sections:  the  head,  the  thorax,  and  the 
abdomen.  The  upper  portion,  or  back,  is  known  as  the  dorsal  surface, 
or  dorsum;  the  under  side  is  the  ventral  surface,  or  venter;  while  the 
sides  are  designated  as  the  lateral  surface,  or  pleurites.  The  upper  and 
under  surfaces  of  the  thorax  are  sometimes  designated  respectively  as 
the  notum  and  sternum. 

There  are  very  many  minor  subdivisions  into  which  the  different 
sections  of  the  body  are  separated,  but  it  is  not  necessary  in  this 
treatise  to  name  or  enumerate  them,  nor  for  the  young  entomologist  to 
learn  them.  If  our  readers  desire  to  go  deeper  into  the  subject,  the 
scientific  text-books  will  give  them  an  account  of  the  more  minute  sub- 
divisions and  their  various  uses.  It  is  enough  for  us  to  get  a  general 
idea  of  our  subject,  and  we  shall  therefore  have  to  proceed  at  once  to 
investigate  the  three  principal  divisions,  their  attachments  and  various 
organs. 


CALIFORNIA  STATE  COMMISSION  OF   HORTICULTURE. 


THE    HEAD. 


In  insects,  as  in  the  higher  animals,  the  head  includes  most  of  the 
sensory  organs — the  eyes,  the  antennae,  and  the  mouth  parts,  contain- 
ing the  organs  of  taste,  and,  in  some  species  at  least,  the  organs  of  smell 
also.  The  different  portions  of  the  head  are:  The  epicranium,  which  is 


mp 


FIG.  6.  Skull  of  a  grasshopper  (Melanoplus  differentiates),  a,  antenna  ; 
c,  clypeus ;  e,  compound  eye  ;  /,  front ;  g ,  gena ;  I,  labrum ;  lp,  labial 
palpus;  mp,  maxillary  palpus ;  o,  ocelli ;  oc,  occiput;  pg,  post-gena; 
v,  vertex. 

the  upper  or  dorsal  portion  of  the  skull;  the  face,  or  front  or  frons 
above  which  is  the  vertex  or  forehead.  The  clypeus  is  in  the  lower  por- 
tion of  the  face,  and  is  the  part  to  which  the  upper  lip  or  labrum  is 
attached.  The  cheeks  are  known  as  gense,  and  in  some  species  these 


fit!!  m 


/     X 


FIG.  7.    Ocelli  and  compound  eyes  oi  a  fly  (Phormia  regina).    A,  male;  B,  female. 

are  double,  and  we  have  post-gense.  On  the  under  side  of  the  head  is 
the  gula,  to  which  the  lower  lip  or  labium  is  attached.  The  external 
top  of  the  head,  in  contact  with  the  prothorax,  is  the  occiput.  The 
principal  organs  of  the  head  are  the  eyes,  the  mouth,  and  the  antennas. 

Eyes. — In  the    perfect  insect   there    is   a  pair    of    compound    eyes. 
These  are  usually  very  prominent  and  highly  faceted.     In  some  insects? 


ENTOMOLOGY    IX    OUTLINE STRUCTURE    OF    INSECTS. 


15 


as  the  dragon-fly,  the  house-fly,  and  others,  they  form  the  greater  part 
of  the  head.  The  eye  of  an  insect  is  immovable,  fast  in  its  socket.  It 
is  hemispherical  or. curvilinear  in  form,  and  covered  with  facets  or  flat 
surfaces.  They  are  called  compound  eyes,  and  are  of  many  colors — blue, 
black,  emerald  green,  or  deep  golden,  as  in  the  lace-winged  fly.  Really, 


FIG.  8.  Agglomerate  eyes  of  a 
male  coccid,  Leachia  fusci- 
penni.*  (After  Signoret.) 


FIG.  9.    Facets  of  a  com 
pound   eye    of 
plns.  Highly  magnified. 


each  facet  is  a  separate  eye,  hexagonal   in 

shape,  with  a  cornea,  lens,  pigment-coating,  •'    llll 

and    nervous    filament.     The  facets  face   in  w/% 

every  direction  and  enable  the  insect  to  see  FIG.  10.   Portion  of  compound  eye 

-j i       •  I  •j.'u  j.i_  '£   XL  of  fly  (Caliiphora  vomitoria),  radi- 

on  all  sides  with  greater  ease  than  if  they     ai  section    e  cornea-  i  iris  pig- 
were    single    lensed    and    movable.      In    SOme       ment;   »,  nerve  fibers;  nc,  nerve 

cases  these  facets  are  very  numerous,  the  eye     «'£  ygX£SJ"  '' tr 

of  a  small  beetle,  the  Mordella,  having  over 

25,000,  the  common  swallow-tailed  butterfly,  the  Papilio,  having  17,000, 

the  dragon-fly  12,000,  the  house-fly  4,000,  while  the  eyes  of  some  ants 

are  limited  to  50.  Besides  these  compound  eyes,  most  insects  have  two 

or  three  simple  eyes, 
known  as  ocelli  or 
stemmata.  These 
are  usually  arranged 
in  triangular  form 
(thus  .*.),  and  are 
round  and  convex 
in  shape.  These  ex- 
tra eyes  are  not  pres- 
ent in  all  insects, 
nor  are  their  exact 
functions  known. 

They  are  possessed  of  great  refractive  power  and  are  supposed  to  be  of 

use  in  the  examination  of  near-by  objects. 

Mouth. — The  mouth  is  a  very  complicated  piece  of  mechanism, 
and  is  furnished  with  various  organs,  enabling  the  insect  to  take  its 
nourishment  as  its  habits  require.  There  are  two  general  classes  of 


FIG.  11.    Ocelli  and  compound  eyes  of  the  honey-bee  (Api 
mellifera).    A,  queen;  B,  drone.    (After  Cheshire.) 


.16 


CALIFORNIA  STATE   COMMISSION  OF   HORTICULTURE. 


FIG.  12.  Mouth  parts  of  a  cockroach  (/*<•/* unjttcra  pennsylvanica).  A,  labruin  : 
B,  mandible;  C,  hypopharynx;  D,  maxilla;  E,  labium;  c,  cardo;  g  (of  maxilla), 
galea;  g  (of  labium),  glossa;  I,  lacinia;  Ip,  labial  palpus;  m,  mentum;  mp,  max- 
illary palpus;  p,  paraglossa ;  pf,  palpifer;  pg,  palpiger;  s,  stipes;  sm,  submen- 
tum.  B,  D,  and  E  are  in  ventral  aspect. 

insects,  distinguished  from  each  other  by  their  mouth  parts,  the  one 
having  biting  or  gnawing  organs,  and  known  as  mandibulate  insects. 

Beetles,  grasshoppers,  locusts,  etc.,  belong  to 
this  class.  In  the  other,  the  mouth  parts  are 
fitted  for  sucking  only,  and  the  insects  acquire 
their  nourishment  by  inserting  their  beaks 
into  plants  or  animals  and  absorbing  the 
juices  by  suction.  These  are  known  as  haus- 
tellate  insects,  and  in  this  class  we  find  many 
of  the  greatest  pests  of  the  farmer  and  fruit- 
grower, among  them  the  plant  lice,  or  aphids, 
scale  bugs,  etc.  In  their  perfect  state,  moths 
and  butterflies  derive  their  nourishment  by 
suction,  sipping  the  nectar  from  flowers  with 
the  long,  thread-like  tube  which  forms  the 
mouth.  Really,  the  haustellate  mouth  is  a 
form  of  the  mandibulate,  modified  to  suit  the 
habits  of  its  possessor. 

In  the  biting  insects  (Mandibulates)  the 
mouth  is  composed  of  six  different  parts. 
First,  the  mandibles,  a  pair  of  horny  curved  jaws,  often  serrated,  or 
supplied  with  sharp,  saw-like  teeth.  Secondly,  a  second  pair  of  jaws 
located  beneath  the  mandibles,  and  generally  of  four  parts  and  arranged 


FIG.  13.  Labium  of  Harpalus 
caliginosus,  ventral  aspect. 
g,  united  glossse,  termed  the 
glossa;  m,  mentum  ;  p,  palpus ; 
pg,  palpiger ;  pr,  paraglossa ; 
sm,  submentum.  The  median 
portion  of  the  labium  beyond 
the  mentum  is  termed  the 
ligula. 


ENTOMOLOGY  IN  OUTLINE  — STRUCTURE  OF  INSECTS. 


17 


for  masticating  the  food  torn  off  by  the  mandibles.  These  organs  are 
known  as  the  maxillae.  To  these  are  usually  attached  one  or  two  pairs 
of  jointed  organs,  called  palpi,  or  feelers.  One  pair  of  these  is  attached 
to  the  lower  jaw  or  maxilla,  and  are  termed  the  maxillary  palpi,  and 
the  others  are  attached  to  the  lower  lip,  and  are  designated  the  labial 
palpi.  Their  office  seems  to  be  somewhat  like  that  of  the  tongue  in 


E  BCD 

FIG.  14.    Various  forms  of  mandibles.    A,  Melanoplus ;  B,  Cicindela;  C,  Apis; 
D,  Onthophagns;  E,  Chrysopa;  F-I,  soldier  termites.    (After  Hagen.) 

the  higher  animals.  Third,  an  upper  lip,  or  labrum,  attached  to  the 
lower  portion  of  the  head;  and,  fourth,  the  lower  lip,  or  labium,  with 
its  attached  palpi.  The  labium  is  usually  composed  of  two  or  more 
parts,  the  mentum  or  chin,  which  is  a  broad,  horny  plate,  varying  in 
size  in  different  species,  and  the  ligula,  or  tongue,  which  lies  on  its 
inner  surface.  This  is  usually  a  membranous  or  fleshy  organ,  some- 
times supported  by  a  horny  plate  when  it 
projects  beyond  the  mentum. 

Antennas. — The  antennae  are  organs  found 
in  all  insects,  and  are  situated  near  the  com- 
pound eyes  and  usually  between  them.  These 
organs  vary  greatly  in  different  insects  and 
frequently  even  in  the  two  sexes  of  one  species. 
In  some  cases  they  are  mere  knobs,  as  in  the 
ladybirds;  in  others  they  are  much  longer 
than  the  entire  insect.  They  are  sometimes 
feathered;  sometimes  branched,  knobbed,  or 
composed  of  a  series  of  spherical  joints  joined 
together  like  a  string  of  beads.  In  some  cases 
they  connect  by  a  number  of  plates,  and, 
throughout  the  whole  class,  they  vary  in 
structure  almost  as  much  as  the  species  them- 
selves differ  one  from  the  other.  What  the 
object  of  these  organs  is,  has  not  been  defin- 
itely determined.  They  are  commonly  called  feelers,  and  certainly 
appear  to  possess  a  tactile  sense.  They  may,  in  some  cases,  be  organs  of 
hearing,  and  sometimes  seem  to  have  auditory  qualities.  Experiments 

2-E 


FIG.  15.  Head  of  butterfly 
(Vanessa),  p,  labial  palpus; 
a,  antennae ;  I,  proboscis. 


18 


CALIFORNIA  STATE  COMMISSION  OF  HORTICULTURE. 


have  shown  that  in  some]  cases  they  are  organs  of  smell.  In  fact, 
they  may  be  any  or  all  of^rthese,  or,  as  has  been  suggested,  they  may 
be  the  organs  of  a  sense  in  insects  of  which  we  have  no  knowledge. 
Practically,  there  is  but  one  sense,  that  of  feeling.  What  we  know  as 
sight,  hearing,  taste,  and  smell  are  but  different  forms  of  feeling,  and 
are  caused  by  vibrations  which  convey  to  our  special  organs  certain 

S 


K 

FIG.  16.    Various      rnis  of  antennae.    A,  filiform,  Euscltistus;  B,  setaceous,  Platemis; 
C,  moniliform,  Catogenus;  D,  geniculate,  Bombus;  f,  flagellum;  p,  pedicel;   s,  scape; 
E,  irregular,  Phormia;  a,  arista;  F,  setaceous,  Galerita;  G,  clavate,  Anosia;  H,  pecti- 
nate,  male,    Ptilodactyla;    I,    lamellate,    Lachnosterna:    J,    capitate,    Megalodacne;    . 
K,  irregular,  Dinentus. 

sensations,  which  we^designate  by  different  names,  but  which  depend 
for  their  reception  upon  the  sensory  nerves,  and  we  therefore  feel  sound, 
color,  flavor,  and  odors.  The  antennae  of  insects  are  especially  adapted 
to  receive  and  convey  the  various  forms  of  vibration,  and  it  is  not  im- 
probable that  they  may  serve  the  purposes  for  which  several  organs  are 
required  in  the  higher  forms  of  life.  Let  this  be  as  it  may,  it  is  certain 
that  the  antennae  of  insects  are  among  the  most  important  of  their 
organs.  They  may  be  used  also  for  the  conveyance  of  information,  as 
we  know  that  ants  and  other  insects  on  meeting  will  communicate  to 
each  other  by  means  of  their  antennae,  and  we  know  also  that  many 
insects,  especially  social  insects,  have  the  means  of  conveying  informa- 
tion to  each  other. 


ENTOMOLOGY  IN  OUTLINE  — STRUCTURE  OF  INSECTS. 


19 


It  is  necessary  that  some  knowledge  should  be  had  of  the  different 
forms  of  antennae,  as  these  are  all  classified,  and  are  sometimes  used  in 
the  description  of  families.  In  the  beetles,  for  instance,  we  have  the 
Clavicornia,  club  horns;  Serricornia, saw  horns;  Lamellicornia,thin  plate 
horns,  etc.  So  in  order  to 

describe    the    different  -^^  "^  an 

forms  of  antennae,  they 
have  been  classified  as 
follows  (see  Fig.  16): 

Setaceous:  Bristle-like. 

Filiform:  Thread-like. 

Moniliform:     Necklace- 
like. 

Serrate:  Saw-like. 

Pectinate:  Comb-like. 

Clavate:  Club-shaped. 

Capitate:  Ending  in  a 
head  or  knob. 

Lamellate:  Plates. 

Geniculate:   Jointed  or 
kneed. 

Besides  these  general 
terms  others  are  used  in 
describing  the  antennae; 
as,  plumose,  or  feathered; 
and  "irregular,"  which 
includes  many  forms  not 
included  in  the  above  list. 

THE    THORAX    AND    ITS 
APPENDAGES. 

The    foregoing  will  give  FIG.  IT.    Ventral  aspect  of  a  carabid  beetle  (Galeriia  Janus). 

the  Student  a  general  idea  I,  prosternum ;  2,proepisternum;  3,  proepimeron ;  4,  coxal 

.    ,       ,          ,          ,  .               .  cavity:    5,  inflexed  side  of  pronotum;    6,  mesosternum ; 

me  head  and  its  various  7,  mesoepisternum;  8,  mesoepimeron ;    9,  mesasternum ; 

-Organs,     the    eyes      the  10'  antecoxal  Piece ;  n>  metaepisternum;  12,  metaepime- 

iU           J    .L-U  ron '  13>  inflexed  side  of  elytron ;  a,  sternum  of  an  abdomi- 

niOUtri,  and   the    antennae,  nal  segment;   an,  antenna;  c,  coxa;  /,  femur;  lp,  labial 

and  we   will    nOW    proceed  PalPus'    »M*.  mandible;    mp,  maxillary    palpus;    t,  tro- 

.  ,  chanter;  tb,  tibia:  ts,  tarsus. 

to  consider  the  next  im- 
portant division  of  the  body,  the  thorax.  This  is  composed  of  three 
segments  immediately  back  of  the  head.  These  segments  are  named 
pro-,  meso-  and  metathorax.  The  first,  or  the  one  connecting  with  the 
head,  being  the  prothorax,  the  middle  section  the  mesothorax,  and  the 
last,  the  one  connecting  with  the  abdomen,  being  the  metathorax. 
These  segments  appear  to  be  solid  rings,  but  really  they  are  composed 


"73 


20 


CALIFORNIA  STATE  COMMISSION  OF  HORTICULTURE. 


of  several  hexagonal  plates,  capable  of  motion  and  to  which  the  various 
appendages  are  articulated.  Each  of  these  segments  bears  one  pair  of 
legs,  but  only  the  meso-  and  metathorax  bear  wings,  and  either  or  both 
pairs  of  wings  may  be  wanting;  as  in  the  flies  there  is  but  one  pair, 
and  in  many  insects  none. 

Legs. — In  most  adult  insects  and  many  larvae,  each   of   the   three 
thoracic  segments  bears  one  pair  of  legs,  composed  of  several  parts. 
That  joint  immediately  attached  to  the  body  is  known 
as  the  coxa,  the  next  as  the  trochanter,  femur,  tibia,  and 
tarsus,  the  latter  corresponding  to  the  foot  in  the  higher 

C  Sc,    Sc2Ri 


tb 


M4 


IstA 


Cu2 


3dA     2dA 

FIG.  19.  Hypothetical  type  of  venation.  A,  anal  vein;  C,  costa;  Cu, 
cubitus;  M,  media;  R,  radius;  Sc,  subcosta.  (After  Comstock  and 
Needham.) 

animals.  The  legs  are  modified  in  many  ways  to  meet 
the  requirements  of  the  insect,  and  are  adapted  to  run- 
ning, leaping,  swimming,  burrowing,  or  grasping  their 


.cl 

FIG.  18.  Leg  of  a 
beetle  (Caloso- 
ma  calidurn).  c, 
coxa;  cl,  claws; 
/,  femur  ;s,  spur; 
£M5,  tarsal  seg- 
ments; tb,  tibia; 
tr,  trochanter. 


ist  A 

FIG.  20.     Wing  of  a  fly  (Rhyphus).    A,  anal  vein ;  C,  costa ;  Cu,  cubitus ; 
M,  media;  R,  radius;  Sc,  subcosta.    (After Comstock  and  Needham.) 


prey,  according  to  the  habits  of  the  species.  The  tarsus  is  composed 
of  several  parts  or  segments,  usually  five,  the  last  one  generally  being 
provided  With  one  or  two  claws. 

Wings. — There  are  usually  two  pairs  of  wings,  and  these  are  borne 
on  the  last  two  segments  of  the  thorax — the  mesothorax  and  the  meta- 
thorax. As  above  stated,  either  one  or  both  pairs  may  be  absent,  but 
when  so  they  are  usually  represented  by  rudimentary  pads  or  other 
organs.  In  the  order  Diptera,  or  two-winged  flies,  a  pair  of  small 
hooked  or  knobbed  organs,  known  as  halteres,  or  poisers,  represent 


ENTOMOLOGY  IN  OUTLINE— STRUCTURE  OF  INSECTS. 


21 


R3 


R4 


2dA 


them.  In  earwigs  and  beetles  the  first  pair  of  wings  are  represented  by 
a  hard,  horny  wing  covering,  known  as  the  elytra.  The  upper  wings 
are  designated  as  superiors,  anteriors  or  primaries,  and  the  hinder  wings 
as  posteriors  or  secondaries. 
Commonly  they  are  known  as 
fore  and  hind  wings,  which  is 
good  enough  for  practical  use. 
The  wings  of  an  insect  may 
be  compared  to  a  boy's  kite, 
in  which  a  light  membrane 
is  tightly  stretched  over  a 
tough  framework.  In  the 

insect  we  find  a  Strong  frame-  FIG.  21.    Wings  of  a  butterfly  U/iosm).    A,  anal  vein; 
work  Of  horny    tubes,   termed      C.costa;  Cu.cubitus;  M,  media;  R,  radius.  Sc.sub- 
J  costa.    (After  Comstock  and  Needham.) 

veins  or  nerves,  with  a  tough, 

membranous  film  on  either  side.  The  arrangement  of  these  veins  is 
called  the  venation  or  neuration,  and  is  exceedingly  variable,  so  much 
so  that  expert  entomologists  can  tell  to  what  order  or  family,  and 
often  to  what  species,  an  insect  belongs  by  the  arrangement  of  its 

wing  veins.  The 
spaces  between 
the  veins  are 
termed  cells. 
With  all  this 
variation,  how- 
ever, in  all  wings 
there  are  certain 
well  -  marked 
veins,  common 
to  all,  and  these 
have  all  been 
named  and  num- 
bered. The  prin- 
cipal veins  are 
known  as  the 
costa,  subcosta, 
radius,  cubitus, 
media,  and  anal. 
These  are  found 
in  some  form 
in  all  wings. 

Insect  wings  vary  not  only  in  form,  but  also  greatly  in  color  and 
texture,  and  among  them,  especially  in  the  butterflies,  moths,  and 
beetles,  we  find  the  most  exquisite  expression  of  color,  form,  and 
arrangement  in  nature. 


FIG.  22.  Ovipositor  of  Locimtd.  A.  lateral  aspect;  B,  ventral  aspect: 
C,  transverse  section;  c.  cerci;  d,  dorsal  valve;  i,  inner  valve: 
v,  ventral  valve.  The  numbers  refer  to  abdominal  segments. 
(After  Kolbe  and  Dewitz.) 


22 


CALIFORNIA  STATE  COMMISSION  OF  HORTICULTURE. 


THE    ABDOMEN. 

This  is  the  third  and  last  portion  of  the 
body,  and  is  generally  composed  of  nine  seg- 
ments. The  number,  however,  varies  greatly, 
and  in  the  cuckoo-flies  there  are  but  three  or 
four  to  be  seen.  The  principal  organs  of  the 
abdomen  are  those  of  respiration,  digestion r 
and  reproduction.  The  latter  varies  greatly 
in  different  species,  especially  in  the  female, 
in  some  cases  being  elongated  into  a  long  tube, 
the  ovipositor;  in  some  being  supplemented 
with  a  sting;  in  others  being  supplied  with 
sawing  or  piercing  organs;  all  of  which  serve 
for  the  proper  deposition  of  the  egg  in  its 
future  food  supply,  which  instinct  forces  the 
mother  insect  to  select. 

As  stated  above,  the  abdomen  is  composed 
of  nine  segments,  but  these  are  not  always 
distinct.  It  is  usually  considered  as  com- 
posed of  two  parts,  the  abdomen  and  post- 
abdomen,  the  latter  being  composed  of  the 
three  terminal  segments.  In  the  abdomen 
proper,  we  never  find  articulated  appendages,  with  perhaps  the  single 
exception  of  a  small  beetle,  the  Spiractha  eurymedusa.  On  the  post- 

<*, 


FIG.  23.  Reproductive  system 
of  queen  honey-bee,  a,  acces- 
sory sac  of  vagina;  b,  bulb  of 
stinging  apparatus;  c,  colle- 
terial,  or  cement,  gland;  o, 
ovary;  od,  oviduct;  p,  poison 
glands;  pr,  poison  reservoir; 
r,  receptaculum  seminis;  re, 
rectum;  v,  vagina.  (After 
Leuckart.) 


FIG.  24.  Diagrammatic  cross-section  of  the  thorax  of  an  insect,  a,  alimentary 
canal;  d,  dorsal  vessel;  g,  ganglion;  s,  spiracle;  w,  wing;  1,  dorsal  tracheal 
branch;  2,  visceral  branch;  3,  ventral  branch. 

abdominal  segments,  such  appendages  are  frequently  found;  as  the 
honey  tubes  of  the  aphids,  the  forceps  of  the  earwigs,  and  the  thick 
bristles  of  the  cockroaches. 


ENTOMOLOGY  IN  OUTLINE— STRUCTURE  OF  INSECTS. 


23 


THE    INTERNAL    ORGANS. 


Having  now  given  a  short  account  of  the  external  organs  of  insects, 
we  will  glance  at  their  internal  organs,  which  comprise  a  digestive,  cir- 
culatory, respiratory,  and  nervous  system. 

gc  o 


FIG.  25.  Alimentary  tract  of  a  grasshopper  (Melanoplus  differential!*),  c,  colon ; 
cr,  crop;  gc,  gc,  gastric  caeca  ;  i,  ileum;  m,  mid  intestine,  or  stomach;  mt,  Mal- 
pighian,  or  kidney,  tubes;  o,  esophagus;  p,  pharynx;  r,  rectum ;  .«,  salivary 
gland  of  left  side. 

The  digest  ire  organs  consist,  as  in  the  higher  animals,  of  a  contin- 
uous tube,  somewhat  longer  than  the  body,  varying  in  form  with  differ- 
ent insects,  from  a  simple  tube  in 
the  Thysanura,  to  a  complicated 
system  in  the  higher  orders.  It 
is  usually  supplied  with  a  crop, 
gizzard,  stomach,  and  necessary 
assimilative  organs.  The  diges- 
tive tube  is  divided  into  three 
parts :  the  large  intestine,  the 
small  intestine,  and  the  rectum. 


FIG.  26.  Digestive  system  of  a  beetle  (Carabus). 
a,  anal  gland ;  c  (of  fore  gut),  crop ;  c  (of  hind 
gut),  colon,  merging  into  rectum;  d,  evacu- 
ating duct  of  anal  gland;  g,  gastric  caeca: 
i,  ileum;  m,  mid  intestine;  mt,  Malpighian 
tubes ;  o,  esophagus ;  p,  proventriculus ;  r,  res- 
ervoir. (After  Kolbe.) 


FIG.  27.  Diagram  to  indicate  the  course 
of  blood  in  the  nymph  of  a  dragon-fly 
(Epitheca).  a,  aorta;  h,  heart;  the  ar- 
rows show  direction  taken  by  currents 
of  blood.  (After  Kolbe.) 


CALIFORNIA  STATE  COMMISSION  OF  HORTICULTURE. 


The  circulation  of  insects  is  as  yet  im- 
perfectly understood.  The  blood  is  cold, 
and,  except  for  a  slight  yellowish  tint,  is 
colorless.  There  is  no  system  of  closed 
blood  vessels,  as  in  the  higher  animals, 
but  the  blood  is  forced  through  the  body 
cavities  by  an  organ  which  represents 
the  heart.  This  organ  is  a  delicate  tube, 
located  in  the  upper  surface  of  the  body, 
and  is  usually  called  the  dorsal  vessel. 
This  represents  the  heart,  and  ordinarily 
consists  of  eight  sections,  or  sacs,  which 
open  into  each  other  and  which,  by  con- 
tracting, drive  the  blood  forward  to  the 
region  of  the  head,  where  it  escapes  into 
the  body  cavity.  No  system  of  arteries 
or  veins  has  been  traced.  In  its  course 
through  the  body,  the  blood  becomes 
oxygenated  by  contact  with  the  respir- 
atory organs,  which  penetrate  into  all 
parts  of  the  body.  (See  Fig.  27.) 

The  respiratory  system  consists  of  a 
vast  number  of  tubes  or  trachea^,  which 
have  their  openings  to  the  outer  air 
along  the  sides  of  the  insect.  These  air 
tubes  are  known  as  spiracles  or  stigmata. 
They  are  usually  placed  on  each  side 
of  every  segment,  excepting  the  head, 
and  communicate  with  a  main  tracheal 
trunk  which  extends  along  the  sides  of  the  body.  One  of  these  trunks 
is  situated  on  each  side  and  from  these  the  trachea  branch  off  in  all 


FIG.  28.  Tracheal  system  of  an  insect, 
a,  antenna;  6,  brain;  I,  leg;  n,  nerve 
cord ;  p,  palpus ;  s,  spiracle ;  st,  spiracu- 
lar,  or  stigmatal,  branch ;  t,  main  tra- 
cheal trunk;  v,  ventral  branch ;  rs,  vis- 
ceral branch.  (After  Kolbe.) 


Trachea  opened.  Trachea  closed. 

FIG." 29.  Apparatus  for  closing  the  spiracular  trachea  in  a  beetle  (////- 
CCWMS).  b,  bow;  bd,  band;  c,  external  cuticula;  /,  lever;  m,  muscle; 
s,  spiracle;  t,  trachea.  (After  Judeich  and  Nitsche). 

directions  until  the  whole  body  is  permeated  with  these  delicate  air 
tubes  and  thoroughly  aerated. 


ENTOMOLOGY  IN  OUTLINE— STRUCTURE  OF  INSECTS. 

/. 


25 


b-. 


The  nervous  system  of  insects  consists  of  two 
thread-like  cords  running  the  length  of  the 
body,  connecting  which 
are  nerve  centers,  or  gang- 
lia. From  these  centers, 
or  ganglia,  nerve  threads 
branch  and  reach  all  parts 
of  the  body,  governing  the 
sense  and  motion  of  the 
insect.  In  the  lower  forms 
of  life  the  brain  is  a  mere 
nerve  thread  running 
through  the  body.  As  we 
advance  from  the  lower 
to  the  higher,  we  discover 
small  swellings  or  lumps 
along  this  thread.  These 
are  the  ganglia,  and  each 
one  forms  a  separate  little 
brain,  all  connected  with 
the  main  thread.  Still 
further,  we  find,  branch- 
ing off  from  these  ganglia, 
other  threads,  and  we  have 
a  nervous  system.  In  the 
higher  animals,  the  bulb 
in  the  head  is  much  the 
larger  and  dominates  all 
the  rest,  and  we  know  it 
as  the  brain,  and  the  rest 

as  the  nervous  system.     In  the  higher  animals 
there  are  two  sets  of  nerves,  one  known  as   the 


matically  represented,  a,  an- 
tennal  nerve:  6,  brain,  /, 
frontal  ganglion  ;  /,  I,  paired 
lateral  ganglia;  ?H,  nerves  to 
upper  mouth  parts;  o,  optic 
nerve;  r,  recurrent  nerve; 
«,  nerve  to  salivary  glands; 
st,  stomachic  ganglion.  (After 
Kolbe.) 


FIG.  30.  Central  nervous 
system  of  a  thysanuran 
(Machili*).  The  thoracic 
and  abdominal  ganglia 
are  numbered  in  succes- 
sion, a,  antennal  nerve ; 
6,  brain;  e,  compound 
eye;  I,  labial  nerve;  m, 
mandibular  nerve;  mx, 
maxillary  nejve;o,  esoph- 
agus; ol,  optic  lobe;  ?, 
subesophageal  ganglion ; 
sy,  sympathetic  nerve.' 
(After  Oudemans.) 


A 

FIG.  32.  Successive  stages  in  the  concentration  of  the  central 
nervous  system  of  Diptera.  A,  Chironomus:  B,  Empis; 
C,  Tabanus  :  D,  Sarcophaga.  (After  Brandt.) 


26 


CALIFORNIA  STATE  COMMISSION  OF  HORTICULTURE. 


sensory  nerves,  or  those  with  which  we  feel  and  which  convey  impres- 
sions to  the  brain,  and  the  motor  nerves,  or  those  which  receive  im- 
pressions from  the  brain.  The  one  set  enables  us  to  feel,  the  other  to 
act.  With  the  lower  insects  the  brain  and  nervous  system  are  very 
simple,  but  in  the  higher  orders  it  becomes  more  complicated,  and  is 
evidence  of  the  possession  of  much  intelligent  force. 


THE  TRANSFORMATION  OF  INSECTS. 

One  of  the  most  peculiar  and  wonderful  of  natural  phenomena  is  the 
transformation  or  metamorphosis  of  insects — a  process  which,  -were  it 
not  so  common  and  going  on  under  our  observation  every  day,  would 
be  unbelievable.  If  we  did  not  know  of  it,  and  some  traveler  should  tell 
us  that  in  a  distant  country  he  had  seen  animals  that  in  one  stage  of 
their  existence  were  repulsive  worms,  and  then  became  mummified, 


D       V  E  ~    V 

FIG.  38.  Eggs  of  various  insects.  A,  butterfly,  Polygonia  interrogationis;  B,  house-fly, 
Musca  domestica;  C,  chalcid,  Bruchophagus  funebHs;  D,  butterfly,  Papilio  troilus; 
E,  midge,  Cecidomyia  trifotii:  F,  hemipteron,  Triphleps  insidiosus;  G,  hemipteron, 
Podisus  spinosus;  H,  fly,  Drosophila  ampelophila.  Greatly  magnified. 

losing  all  semblance  to  themselves,  being  practically  dead  for  some 
time,  and  then  broke  forth  from  their  mummy  cases  into  the  most 
beautiful  and  brilliant  creatures  imaginable,  far  exceeding  any  other 
animal  in  their  beauty,  we  should  regard  him  as  drawing  upon  a  very 
vivid  imagination  and  relating  things  that  were  utterly  impossible. 
Yet  it  is  all  true,  and  it  is  so  common  that  it  all  passes  under  our  eyes 
without  a  thought  on  our  part  of  the  wonder  of  it. 

The  insect  passes  through  four  stages:  the  egg,  the  larva,  the  pupa, 
and  the  imago.  The  egg  is  the  germ,  the  beginning,  the  contained 
potentiality,  which,  under  proper  conditions,  brings  forth  the  new 
being.  The  second  stage,  the  larva,  is  the  growing  period.  In  this  the 
insect  eats,  increases  in  size,  sheds  its  skin,  or  molts,  several  times, 
until  it  has  stored  up  sufficient  tissue  for  the  final  stage.  But  there  is 
an  intermediate  stage,  one  of  remarkable  change,  in  which  the  insect 
ceases  to  be  a  mere  eating,  growing  thing,  and  is  transformed  into  its 
perfect  shape.  This  is  the  pupal  form.  At  last  the  final  change  takes 
place,  and  we  have  the  new  being  in  all  its  perfection. 


ENTOMOLOGY  IX  OUTLINE — TRANSFORMATION  OF  INSECTS.  2< 

It  may  be  set  down  as  an  axiom  that  all  the  beauties  of  the  animal 
and  vegetable  kingdoms  are  for  the  purpose  of  sexual  attraction,  the 
whole  object  of  them  being  the  continuation  of  the  species.  Plants 
are  plain  and  uninteresting  until  they  attain  their  growth  and  put 
forth  their  blossoms,  and  these  blossoms,  with  their  gorgeous  hues  and 
beautiful  forms,  are  for  the  sole  purpose  of  attracting  the  insects,  the 
little  go-betweens  in  the  love-making  of  the  plants,  which  carry  the 
fructifying  pollen  from  one  to  the  other  and  make  possible  a  future 
crop  of  plants,  flowers,  and  seeds,  and  so  it  goes  on  forever. 

It  is  so  in  the  metamorphoses  of  insects.  At  the  last  it  has  ceased 
to  be  a  gourmand.  In  many  cases,  its  voracious  appetite  ceased  with 
its  larval  life  and  it  lives  by  sipping  the  nectar  of  the  plants.  It  has 
now  acquired  its  full  sexual  strength,  its  full  sexual  beauty,  and  its 


FIG.  34.    Caterpillar  of  Phlegethontius  scxta.    Natural  size. 

great  object  in  life  now  is  to  be  attractive  to  the  other  sex.  For  this 
purpose  the  bright  colors  are  developed  in  some,  peculiar  markings  in 
others — strange  shapes,  rapid  flight,  strength,  or  other  characteristics, 
having  for  their  one  object  the  continuance  of  the  species.  This  accom- 
plished, their  life  cycle  has  closed  and  they  pass,  like  the  rest  of  us, 
from  this  stage  forever. 

Metamorphoses  are  not  similar  in  all  the  orders.  In  some  of  the 
orders  we  have  what  is  known  as  "direct/7  or  incomplete,  metamor- 
phosis; in  this  case  there  is  no  passive  stage,  and  in  many  cases  the 
change  from  the  larval  to  the  perfect  form  is  hardly  noticeable.  In 
others,  the  larvae,  or  nymphs,  as  they  are  called,  molt  several  times, 
and,  at  the  last,  where  they  are  winged  at  all,  the  wings  develop  and 
the  insect  becomes  perfect,  or  enters  upon  the  imago  stage.  Among 
insects  of  this  class  we  have  the  bugs,  or  Hemiptera,  the  grasshoppers, 
crickets,  cockroaches,  and  other  members  of  the  order  Orthoptera. 
These  insects  passing  through  the  direct  metamorphosis  are  classed 
together  under  the  name  of  Holometabola. 


28 


CALIFORNIA  STATE  COMMISSION  OP  HORTICULTURE. 


The  other  group,  which  have  an  "indirect"  or  complete  metamor- 
phosis, are  grouped  together  as  Heterametabola.  In  these,  the  insects 
pass  through  the  regular  stages:  the  egg,  the  growing  larva,  the  pupa, 
and  the  perfect  insect  or  imago. 


FIG.  3f>.    Six  successive  instars  of  tin-  squash-bug  (Anasa  trixti*). 

In  the  pupal  stage  of  most  insects  having  an  indirect  or  complete 
metamorphosis,  there  is  a  strong  approach  to  suspended  animation,  for 
while  the  pupa  will  sometimes  squirm,  when  touched,  it  usually 
remains  in  perfect  rest  until  the  great  change  has  been  accomplished. 


B 


FIG.  36.    Papilio  troilus.    A,  larva ;  B,  larva  suspended  for  pupation ; 
C,  chrysalis.    Natural  size. 

In  those  insects  which  have  a  direct  metamorphosis,  the  insect  in  its 
transition  stage  is  spoken  of  as  a  nymph. 

The  changing  insect  in  other  cases  is  known  as  a  pupa,  although  in 
the  case  of  butterflies  it  is  often  referred  to  as  a  chrysalis. 


ENTOMOLOGY  IN  OUTLINE— ORDERS  OF  INSECTS.  29 

The  change  is  one  of  the  most  wonderful  operations  in  nature.  It  is 
as  if  the  original  larva  had  been  entirely  destroyed  and  an  animaFof 
an  entirely  new  species  had  appeared.  With  its  pupa  integument,  it 
has  lost  all  the  organs  characteristic  of  the  larval  stage,  and  an  entire 
new  set  have  been  provided.  It  now  possesses  six  true  legs,  wings  suited 
for  rapid  flight,  compound  eyes,  antennae,  a  more  perfect  nervous  sys- 
tem, while,  in  the  case  of  many  insects,  the  sharp,  gnawing  jaws  of  the 
larva,  which  were  adapted  to  cutting  leaves  or  boring  into  wood,  have 
been  replaced  with  long,  delicate  tubes  suited  to  absorbing  the  nectar 
of  flowers.  The  very  instincts  of  the  insect  are  changed,  and  the  life 
habits  of  the  larva  and  the  imago  are  as  different  as  their  outward 
appearance. 


THE  ORDERS  OF  INSECTS. 


We  have  now  given  an  outline  of  the  structure  and  peculiarities  of 
insects  as  a  whole,  and  have  reached  a  point  where  we  can  segregate 
them  into  groups  or  orders,  which  is  necessary  for  closer  study.  As 
stated  before,  there  are  seven  principal  orders  of  insects — Orthoptera, 
Hemiptera,  Neuroptera,  Coleoptera,  Diptera,  Hymenoptera,  and  Lepi- 
doptera.  There  are,  as  we  said,  several  minor  orders,  but  the  above 
classification  will  answer  our  purpose  and  we  will  consider  them  in  the 
order  named. 

Order  ORTHOPTERA. 

Orthoptera  means  straight-winged,  and  alludes  to  the  fact  that  the 
hinder  wings,  when  folded,  lie  perfectly  straight  down  the  back  of  the 
insect  without  any  folds.  The  anterior  wings  are  of  little,  if  any,  serv- 
ice in  flight,  serving  principally  as  a  covering  for  the  large  posterior 
wings,  which,  when  spread,  are  semicircular  in  shape,  and  open  and 
close  like  a  fan.  They  are  of  large  size,  and  the  principal  veins  radiate, 
like  the  sticks  of  a  fan,  from  the  center.  Not  all  members  of  this  order 
are  winged,  however,  many  of  them  being  apterous,  or  wingless. 

The  head  is  usually  large  and  very  prominent,  and  the  antennae 
either  short,  stout,  and  few-pointed,  as  in  the  locust,  or  very  long  and 
slender,  as  in  the  katydid.  The  head  bears  one  pair  of  large  compound 
eyes  and  usually  two  or  three  ocelli  or  simple  eyes,  and  the  mouth  parts 
are  suited  for  gnawing  or  biting. 

The  Orthoptera  have  a  direct  or  incomplete  metamorphosis.  The 
young,  when  hatched,  very  much  resemble  the  mature  insect,  and  in 
the  first  or  larval  stage  are  wingless.  They  pass  through  several  molts 


30  CALIFORNIA  STATE  COMMISSION  OF  HORTICULTURE. 

when  the  wingpads  appear,  and  they  are  now  known  as  nymphs.  At 
the  last  molt  the  wings  are  fully  developed,  and  the  insect  is  perfect. 

They  are  voracious  in  all  their  stages,  and  while  we  find  a  beneficial 
member  of  the  order  in  the  mantis,  we  also  find  in  it  many  of  our  most 
destructive  insects,  the  grasshoppers,  locusts,  crickets,  cockroaches,  etc. 
Our  readers  are  fully  alive  to  the  devastation  wrought  by  one  of  the 
families  of  this  order — the  locusts — as  California,  and  the  whole  Pacific 
Coast,  frequently  suffer  severely  from  their  depredations.  With,  per- 
haps, the  exception  of  the  Cicada,  or  seventeen-year  locust,  which,  by 
the  way,  is  not  a  locust,  but  a  "bug,"  as  explained  elsewhere,  we  find  in 
this  order  the  only  " singing"  insects,  and  the  song  of  the  cricket  on 
the  hearth  and  the  katydid  in  the  trees  has  given  most  people  a  kindly 
feeling  for  these  destructive  insects,  not  felt  toward  others. 

The  Orthoptera  are  classed  in  six  families,  which  Comstock  describes 
as  follows: 

The  Running  Orthoptera. — The  body  is  oval  when  seen  from  above  and  is  very  flat; 

the  three  pairs  of  legs  are  similar  in  form ;  the  insects  run  rapidly Blattidx 

The  Grasping  Orthoptera. — The  prothorax  is  very  long  and  slender ;  the  first  pair 

of  legs  are  very  different  from  the  others,  and  are  fitted  for  grasping Mantidx 

The  Walking  Orthoptera. — The  body  is  very  long  and  slender;  the  three  pairs  of  legs 
are  similar  in  form,  and  are  also  very  long  and  slender;  the  insects  walk 

slowly -. Phasmidx 

The  Jumping  Orthoptera. — The  hind  legs  are  very  much  stouter  or  very  much 
longer.,  or  both  stouter  and  longer,  than  the  middle  pair,  being  fitted  for 
jumping.  This  group  includes  three  families: 

The  Short-Horned  Grasshoppers,  or  Locusts. — The  antennae  are  shorter  than 
the  body.  The  ovipositor  of  the  female  is  short  and  composed  of  four 

separate  plates.    The  tarsi  are  three-jointed.. Acrididx 

The  Long-Horned  Grasshoppers. — The  antennae  are  very  slender  and  longer 
than  the  body.  (This  is  also  true  of  the  crickets.)  The  ovipositor  is 

sword-shaped.     The  tarsi  are  four-jointed Locustidx 

The  Crickets. — The  antennae,  like  those  of  the  long-horned  grasshoppers, 
are  very  slender  and  longer  than  the  body,  except  in  the  mole-crickets. 
The  ovipositor  is  spear-shaped  when  exerted.  The  tarsi  are  three- 
jointed. Gryllidx 

These  families  are  sometimes  grouped  in  two  large  sections:  the  Salta- 
toria,  or  the  leapers,  in  which  the  hind  legs  are  much  lengthened  and 
formed  for  jumping,  as  the  crickets,  grasshoppers,  and  locusts,  and  the 
Cursoria,  in  which  the  legs  are  formed  for  running,  as  the  cockroaches, 
etc.  The  latter  group  includes  the  first  mentioned  three  families,  and 
the  first  group  the  others. 

Section  CURSORIA. 

Family  Blattidse.  At  the  head  of  the  section  Cursoria  is  placed  the 
Blattidae,  or  roaches.  While  few  of  them  are  known  to  California, 
there  are  a  thousand  or  more  species  in  the  world.  Many  of  these  live 
in  the  fields  and  find  shelter  under  sticks  and  stones.  Some  are  wing- 
less, and  all  are  nocturnal  and  very  fond  of  heat  and  moisture.  It  is  on 


ENTOMOLOGY  IN   OUTLINE — ORTHOPTERA.  31 

this  account  that  they  swarm  in  kitchens,  around  sinks,  in  pantries, 
the  holds  of  ships  and  steamers,  and  similar  locations. 

The  female  lays  her  eggs  in  a  purse-like  pouch,  in  a  double  row,  which 
she  carries  with  her  for  some  time  before  she  deposits  it.  This  mass 
resembles  a  small,  brown  bean  in  shape.  In  some  cases  it  is  asserted 
that  the  female  remains  with  and  cares  for  her  young.  The}'  breed  in 
enormous  quantities,  and  once  introduced  into  a  house  will  soon  over- 
run it,  but  on  account  of  their  nocturnal  habits  and  timorous  disposi- 
tion, they  may  be  present  in  quantities,  yet  remain  unsuspected. 
Going  suddenly  into  the  kitchen  with  a  light  will  sometimes  show  them 
by  hundreds  scampering  off  in  all  directions  for  a  place  of  retreat. 

Like  most  of  our  pests,  the  worst  of  the  cockroaches  is  an  introduced 
species.  They  are  omnivorous  in  diet  and  do  much  damage  to  books 
and  clothing,  besides  overrunning  and  devouring  food  in  the  pantry 
and  cupboards. 

Insect  powder  freely  dusted  over  books  and  similar  articles  will  drive 
them  away,  while  powdered  borax  mixed  with  sugar,  of  which  they  are 
very  fond,  will  kill  them  in  large  numbers. 

Family  Mantidse  (The  Mantis).  This  family  includes  about  twenty 
species  in  our  country,  and  is  the  one  beneficial  family  of  the  order. 
From  its  peculiar  habit  of  holding  its  head  erect,  its  fore  legs  raised,  and 
remaining  motionless  in  this  position  for  some  time,  the  most  con- 
spicuous member  of  the  family  has  been  named  "  The  Praying  Mantis." 
If  a  pun  were  permissible,  it  might  be  called  "  The  Preying  Mantis,"  for 
its  patience,  devout  attitude,  and  generally  saintly  appearance  are 
designed  to  throw  other  insects  off  their  guard,  which,  when  they  come 
within  reach  of  the  waiting,  watchful  mantis,  are  quickly  grasped 
between  the  fore  legs,  their  juices  sucked  from  their  bodies,  which  are 
then  thrown  aside,  while  the  mantis  again  assumes  its  devotional 
attitude  and  awaits  a  fresh  victim. 

All  the  species  of  Mantidse  are  carnivorous,  but  in  securing  their 
prey  they  depend  altogether  upon  their  resemblance  to  twigs,  leaves, 
etc..  and  wait  for  their  victims  to  come  within  their  reach,  when*  they 
are  quickly  seized  and  devoured.  The  eggs  are  laid  in  masses,  inclosed 
in  a  soft  silk-like  substance,  through  which  the  young  gnaw  their 
way  as  soon  as  hatched.  These  insects  are  cannibals,  for  if  there  is  no 
other  food  within  easy  reach  the  young  will  devour  each  other. 

Family  Phasmidse  (Walking-sticks).  This  is  a  peculiar  family,  and 
comprises  within  it  some  of  the  largest  and  most  monstrous  appearing 
creatures  of  the  insect  world.  They  are  strangely  formed  and  depend 
for  their  protection  and  their  food  upon  their  mimicry.  Some  of  them 
strongly  resemble  green  twigs,  others  dry  twigs,  some  the  leaves  of  trees, 
and  so  strong  is  the  likeness  that  it  is  almost  impossible  to  detect  them 


i 

32  CALIFORNIA  STATE  COMMISSION  OF  HORTICULTURE. 

upon  the  tree  where  they  are  at  rest.  These  insects  are  most  numerous 
in  the  tropics,  where  they  sometimes  attain  a  length  of  eight  or  ten 
inches.  All  are  vegetable  feeders,  and  would  become  injurious  were 
they  introduced  and  acclimated,  but,  being  tropical,  there  is  little 
danger  from  this  source. 

Some  members  of  the  family  are  found  in  the  Eastern  states,  through 
the  Mississippi  Valley  and  in  the  South,  but  none  have  ever  been 
reported  from  California. 

Section  SALTATORIA. 

Family  Aerididse  (The  Locusts).  This  is  a  family  in  which  we  are 
especially  interested,  as  it  includes  the  most  destructive  foes  of  the 
farmers  of  the  West.  The  members  of  this  family  are  distinguished 
from  others  of  the  order  in  having  the  antennae — composed  of  from  six 
to  twenty-four  joints — shorter  than  the  body.  It  is  from  this  fact  that 
they  are  sometimes  called  the  short-horned  grasshoppers. 

The  females  lay  their  eggs,  usually  underground,  but  sometimes  in 
other  locations,  in  an  oval,  bean-like  mass.  The  number  of  eggs  in 
each  mass  varies  from  twenty  or  thirty  to  double  that  number.  The 
holes  for  the  reception  of  the  eggs  are  made  by  means  of  two  pairs  of 
horny  valves  at  the  tip  of  the  abdomen  of  the  female.  These  open  and 
shut  rapidly  and  are  well  adapted  to  execute  this  function.  The  female, 
by  pressing  the  tip  of  her  abdomen  forcibly  against  the  soil,  rapidly 
opens  and  shuts  these  hard-pointed  valves  and  soon  pushes  them  into 
the  ground,  thus  drilling  a  hole.  In  a  short  time  the  entire  and  greatly 
extended  abdomen  is  inserted  in  the  little  curved  and  more  or  less 
oblique  cavity.  The  legs  are  hoisted  above  the  back  during  the  opera- 
tion of  drilling  the  hole,  which  requires  more  or  less  time,  depending 
entirely  upon  the  character  of  the  soil.  As  soon  as  the  hole  is  finished, 
it  is  filled  with  frothy  and  mucous  material. 

Professor  Riley  describes  the  method  of  egg-laying  as  follows:  "  By 
repeatedly  extracting  and  studying  specimens  in  every  stage  of  ovipo- 
sition,  we  have  been  able  to  ascertain  the  exact  method  by  which  the 
egg  mass  is  formed.  If  we  could  manage  to  watch  a  female  from  the 
time  the  bottom  of  her  hole  is  moistened  by  the  sebific  fluid,  we  should 
see  the  valves  all  brought  together,  when  an  egg  would  pass  down  the 
oviduct  along  the  ventral  side,  and,  guided  by  a  little  finger-like  style, 
pass  in  between  the  horny  valves,  and  issue  at  their  tips  amid  the 
mucous  fluid  already  spoken  of.  Then  follows  a  period  of  convulsions, 
during  which  more  mucous  material  is  elaborated,  until  the  whole  end 
of  the  body  is  bathed  in  it,  when  another  egg  passes  down  and  is 
placed  in  position.  These  alternate  processes  continue  until  the  full 
complement  of  eggs  are  in  place,  the  number  ranging  from  twenty  to 
thirty-five,  but  averaging  about  twenty-eight.  The  mucous  matter 


ENTOMOLOGY  IN   OUTLINE  —  ORTHOPTER A. 


33 


binds  all  the  eggs  in  a  mass,  and  when  the  last  is  laid,  the  mother 
•devotes  some  time  to  filling  up  the  somewhat  narrower  neck  of  the 
burrow  with  a  compact  and  cellular  mass  of  the  same  material,  which, 
.although  light  and  easily  penetrated,  is  more  or  less  impervious  to 
water,  and  forms  a  very  excellent  protection.  When  fresh,  the  mass  is 
soft  and  moist,  but  it  soon  acquires  a  firm  consistency." 

The  Rocky  Mountain  locust  (Melanoplus  spretus)  is  the  most  dreaded 
of  any  of  our  American  species.  This  species  finds  an  ideal  breeding 
place  in  the  high  plateaus  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  where  tens  of 
thousands  of  square  miles  have  been  untouched  by  the  plow  for  all  the 
ages.  Here  they  breed  undisturbed,  and  by  countless  millions,  and 
those  who  have  never  seen  a  flight  of  these  insects  can  form  no  idea  of 
their  numbers — or 
perhaps,  of  their 
quantity,  for  num- 
bers is  an  inadequate 
term.  In  their  flight, 
they  will  sometimes 
swoop  down  upon  a 
fertile  section  and 
in  a  short  time  dev- 
astate hundreds  of 
square  miles.  Kan- 
sas has  suffered  se- 
verely from  their 
depredations,  until 
Kansas  and  locusts 
have  become  con- 
nected in  the  mind. 
Yet  these  insects  are 
not  indigenous  to 

Kansas,  nor  can  they  thrive  there.  Their  natural  habitat  is  the  high 
plateaus  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  at  an  elevation  of  from  2,000  to 
10,000  feet.  Here,  when  their  food  supply  becomes  short,  a  swarm 
will  sometimes  rise  in  the  air,  and  on  their  expanded  wings  may 
be  carried  hundreds  of  miles  on  an  air  current  until  they  alight  in 
a  place  far  distant  from  their  breeding  grounds.  Thus  they  reached 
Kansas  and  did  damage  for  several  years.  Each  year  their  numbers 
became  fewer  until  they  disappeared,  Kansas  and  its  climate  not  being 
suited  to  them. 

Swarms  of  Rocky  Mountain  locusts  reach  Utah,  Idaho,  Nevada,  and 
frequently  eastern  California;  occasional  small  swarms  pass  over  the 
Sierra  Nevada  range,  but  on  this  side  of  the  range  they  have  never 
been  very  numerous  or  in  sufficient  quantities  to  be  serious. 

3-E 


FIG.  37.  Rocky  Mountain  locust  (Ifelanoplus  spretus)  ovipositing. 
Females  with  abdomen  inserted  in  the  soil;  egg-pod  broken 
open  and  lying  on  the  surface;  a  few  scattered  eggs;  section  of 
soil  removed  to  show  eggs  being  put  in  place,  and  egg-pod 
sealed  over. 


34  CALIFORNIA  STATE  COMMISSION  OF  HORTICULTURE. 

There  is,  however,  a  close  relation  to  this  pest — Melanoplvs  devas- 
tator— with  which  California  is  too  well  acquainted.     This  is  the  locust 
which  appears  in  swarms  each  season  in  some  parts  of  the*  State,  the 
foothill  regions  of  the  Sacramento  and  the  San  Joaquin  valleys  .being 
especially  afflicted  with  their  visitations.     Fortunately  their  breeding 
grounds  are  not  so  extensive,  their  swarms  much  smaller,  and  their 
destructive   powers  vastly   less   than   M.  spretus.     But  they   are   bad 
enough.     From  historic  records,  it  is  evident  that  this  pest  was  much 
worse  in  California  in  early  days  than  at  the  present  time,  swarms  of 
them  having  been  recorded  even  near  San  Francisco.     This  is  natural, 
as  the  insects  breed  in  the  wild,  uncultivated  land,  and,  as  the  country 
becomes   more  densely    settled  and  more   intensely  cultivated,   their 
breeding  area  is  more  and  more  circumscribed,  their  swarms  reduced, 
and  their  destructive  area  lessened.     Their  favorite  breeding  grounds 
are  now  found  on  the  warm  slopes  of  the  foothills,  those  having  a 
southwestern  exposure  being  preferred.   Here,  where  the  soil  is  too  thin 
for  agricultural  purposes,  and  is   left   undisturbed,   large   swarms  of 
M.  devastator  breed  and  do  great  damage  on  the  cultivated  lands  in  the 
vicinity.     Fortunately,  there  are  efficient  parasites  for  these  pests,  and 
they  do  not  often  appear  in  destructive  numbers  for  two  years  in  suc- 
cession in  the  same  place. 

Grasshoppers  in  such  localities  usually  make  their  appearance  during 
the  latter  part  of  May,  and  in  the  following  months  of  June  and  July 
cause  their  greatest  destruction.  After  that,  effects  of  disease,  attacks 
of  natural  enemies,  and  their  extension  over  a  wider  area  so  reduce 
their  numbers  in  a  given  locality  that  their  depredations  are  compara- 
tively so  small  as  to  pass  unnoticed. 

Grasshoppers  generally  first  appear  in  greatest  numbers  along  the 
edges  of  the  foothills,  which  are  their  breeding  ground,  in  isolated 
swarms,  often  many  miles  apart.  When  first  hatched,  their  powers  of 
destruction  are  not  great;  but  with  each  molt  their  voraciousness 
increases,  and  unless  steps  are  promptly  taken  to  combat  them,  or 
unless  attacked  by  their  natural  enemies  in  numbers,  cultivated  crops 
in  their  path  may  be  seriously  injured  or  destroyed  by  them. 

The  grasshopper  has  many  enemies.  A  tachina  fly,  about  the  size  of 
the  common  house-fly,  and  which  it  much  resembles,  is  one  of  the  most 
abundant  and  most  destructive  to  the  hoppers.  Birds  also  aid  greatly 
in  their  destruction.  The  common  meadowlark  is  among  the  most 
active  destroyers  of  this  insect.  When  grasshoppers  are  plentiful  the 
meadowlark  does  not  eat  the  entire  insect,  but  only  the  abdomen  or  a 
portion  of  one,  and  this  habit  enables  it  to  destroy  a  great  number 
every  day.  Blackbirds  of  all  varieties  are  also  great  aids  in  destroying 
them,  but,  unfortunately,  the  birds  are  breeding  and  taking  care  of 
their  young  when  the  grasshoppers  first  appear,  and  as  their  nesting- 


ENTOMOLOGY  IN   OUTLINE  — ORTHOPTER A.  35 

places  are  close  to  water  in  the  tules  and  the  breeding  grounds  of  the 
grasshoppers  are  near  the  foothills,  perhaps  miles  away,  their  services 
are  not  so  valuable  in  proportion  to  their  numbers  as  those  of  the 
meadowlark,  whose  home  may  be  in  the  midst  of  the  young  grasshop- 
pers or  adjacent  thereto.  Later  in  the  season,  the  blackbirds  become 
fearfully  destructive  of  grasshoppers.  Woodpeckers  also  for  a  time 
cease  their  arboreal  habits  to  prey  upon  the  grasshoppers  on  the 
ground.  While  the  sparrowhawks,  owls,  sparrows,  groundlarks,  and, 
in  fact,  all  kinds  of  land  birds,  except  the  dove,  give  their  welcome  aid 
in  destroying  the  pests.  It  is  said  that  skunks  and  gophers  eat  them, 
as  do  also  toads,  frogs,  and  snakes. 

Grasshoppers,  like  all  insects  that  gather  in  large  swarms,  are  subject 
to  contagious  diseases,  which  spread  rapidly  and  carry  them  off  in  large 
numbers,  often  almost  exterminating  them.  A  fungous  disease  is'  one 
of  the  most  fatal  to  grasshoppers  in  some  countries. 

But  when  grasshoppers  become  numerous  and  destructive,  it  is  not 
wise  for  farmers  or  horticulturists  to  await  the  action  of  natural  causes, 
for  proximity  to  cultivated  areas  does  not  give  the  necessary  time  for 
their  action  before  great  damage  has  been  done.  The  farmer  must, 
therefore,  be  prepared  to  defend  his  crop.  The  best  method  to  combat 
the  pest  is  to  plow  the  land  known  to  contain  eggs,  before  the  grasshop- 
pers are  hatched.  When  the  young  hoppers  have  appeared,  they  may 
be  plowed  under  and  destroyed.  Plowing  should  commence  at  the 
outer  boundary  of  the  grasshopper  section,  and  a  number  of  plows 
should  be  used  at  the  same  time,  the  plows  following  each  other  as 
closely  as  possible.  The  grasshoppers  are  in  this  manner  forced  to  the 
center,  where  a  black  mass  of  struggling  insects  are  crowded  together. 
But  few  of  them  will  escape,  for  as  one  plow  makes  a  furrow,  which  is 
rapidly  filled  with  grasshoppers,  the  following  plow  covers  them  under 
and  they  are  buried  alive,  few  of  them  escaping. 

The  genus  Melanoplus,  to  which  both  of  the  above  described  locusts 
belong,  is  a  very  extensive  one,  including  one  hundred  and  twenty 
species  in  the  United  States,  and  is  the  largest  of  all  the  Acridid  genera. 

The  next  most  destructive,  member  of  the  subfamily  Acridinae  is  the 
CEdaleonotus  enigma,  which  species  is  sometimes  very  numerous  and 
destructive. 

Family  Loeustidse.  Dismissing  the  family  Acrididse,  which  includes 
the  numerous  and  destructive  locust  genera,  we  come  to  the  next 
family,  the  Locustidse,  to  which,  by  the  way,  the  locusts  do  not 
belong.  This  includes  the  katydids,  meadow  grasshoppers,  wingless 
crickets,  etc.  Their  common  and  peculiar  characteristics  are  their  very 
long  antenna,  which,  in  many  species,  greatly  exceed  the  length  of  the 
body,  and  the  prominent  wings  in  many  of  those  which  have  these 


36  CALIFORNIA  STATE  COMMISSION  OF  HORTICULTURE. 

organs.  In  those  species  which  '  have  well-developed  wings,  the  males 
are  provided  with  an  elaborate  musical  apparatus,  the  use  of  which  is 
to  call  the  females.  The  chirping  made  by  these  insects  is  familiar  to 
most  people,  to  all  who  have  spent  a  summer  in  the  country,  and  the 
short  rasping  sound  made  by  one  species  (Cyrtophyllus  concavus)  has 
given  it  the  popular  name  of  katydid,  which  its  song  is  supposed  to 
resemble.  In  the  different  species,  each  has  its  own  distinct  note,  and 
entomologists  who  have  made  a  special  study  of  them  can  distinguish 
each  by  its  peculiar  sound. 

Comstock  arranges  the  Locustidse  in  four  general  groups  for  facility 
in  studying,  to  which  he  gives  the  everyday  names  of: 

1.  The  Meadow  Grasshoppers,  including  the  smaller  and  common 
members  of  the  family,  which  abound  in  meadows  and  moist  places. 

2.  The  Katydids,  or   tree   crickets,  generally  bright  green  in  color, 
strongly  resembling  the  foliage   among  which   they   live,   and  which 
render  night  musical  with  their  songs.     One  of  the  most  common  of 
these  in  California  is  the  angular-winged  katydid  (Microcentrum  reti- 
nervis).     The  eggs  of  the  insect  are  laid  in  a  double  row  along  the  edge 
of  a  leaf,  a  twig,  or  other  object,  overlapping  each  other  like  a  row  of 
shingles,  and  are  often  mistaken  for  scale  insects. 

3.  The  Cricket-like  Grasshoppers,  which  are  found  under  stones  and 
rubbish,  especially  in  woods,  and  which  are  wingless. 

4.  The  Shield-back   Grasshopper,  also  wingless,    dull   colored,  and 
resembling  crickets.     This  group  is  represented  in   California  by  the 
Stenopelmatus  irregularis,  a  large,  clumsy  creature,  with  a  big  head  and 
long  antennae,  which  lives  under  stones  and  strongly  resembles  the 
mole  or  Indian  cricket. 

Family  Gryllidse  (The  Crickets).  The  members  of  this  family  of 
jumping  Orthoptera  resemble  the  Locustidse,  in  that  they  have  long, 
slender,  tapering  antennae,  but  differ  from  them  in  having  the  wings 
laid  flat  on  the  back,  the  forewings  bent  down  on  the  sides.  The 
ovipositor  in  the  female  is  long  and  pointed,  while  in  the  Locustidae  it 
is  flat  and  sword-like.  The  males  of  this  family  are  the  greatest  of  all 
insect  musicians,  and  the  sharp  chirp,  chirp,  chirp  of  the  cricket  is  well 
known.  The  commonest  and  best  known  of  these  insects  is  the  field 
cricket,  which  appears  in  such  quantities  in  our  country  towns  on  warm 
summer  nights,  where  they  are  attracted  to  the  electric  light  and  perish 
by  millions  without  apparently  diminishing  the  next  season's  supply. 
Every  warm  night  in  every  summer  brings  them  out  in  countless 
swarms.  It  is  this  insect  that  we  generally  understand  as  being  meant 
when  the  cricket  is  alluded  to,  yet  it  is  but  one  of  a  very  numerous 
family,  comprising  eight  subfamilies,  each  containing  several  genera 
and  species.  These,  however,  are  classed  into  three  distinct  groups,  a 


ENTOMOLOGY  IX   OUTLINE  — ORTHOPTERA. 


37 


classification  ample  for  any  but  the  most  minute,  scientific  study. 
These  groups  are: 

1.  Mole  Crickets,   heavy  bodied,  large-sized  burrowing  insects,  fre- 
quently brought  to  the  surface  in  digging  or  plowing.     This  is  among 
the  most  peculiar  of  these  insects.     It  is  well  named  the  "  mole  cricket/' 
as  in  its  general  form  and  habits  it  resembles  that  animal.     The  front 
legs  are  short,  very  stout,  and  furnished  with  strong,  tibiae,  well  suited 
for  digging  and  much  like  the  fore  paws  of  the  mole.     These  insects 
live  wholly  un- 
derground,   and 

feed  upon  the 
tender  roots  of 
plants,  becom- 
ing a  very  seri- 
ous nuisance 
where  they  are 
numerous. 

2.  True  Crick- 
ets,   which     in- 
clude   the  com- 
mon house  and 
field    crickets, 
which    visit    us 
in    such    hordes 
in    the    summer 
nights.       The 
eggs    of   these 
insects  are  gen- 
erally laid  in  the 
fall,    in    light, 
sandy  soil,   and 
remain    until 

spring,  when  they  hatch  and  the  young  begin  to  eat,  grow,  and  molt, 
until  they  attain  their  growth  and  their  wings  later  in  the  summer, 
when  they  become  very  much  in  evidence.  They  are  serious  pests, 
being  omnivorous  feeders,  and  will  devour  anything  in  their  way.  If 
they  secure  entrance  to  the  house,  which  they  often  do,  cotton  and 
woolen  fabrics  alike  will  be  damaged  by  them.  They  are  in  no  way 
choice  in  the  matter  of  diet  and  do  not  turn  away  from  their  own  kind, 
but  will  devour  each  other  with  avidity  and  a  keen  relish. 

3.  Tree   Crickets,  which  are  found  on  trees   and  shrubs,  as  a  rule, 
although  they  are  sometimes  found    on  grass  and  herbs.     They   are 
delicate  and  rather  small  insects,  as  compared  with  other  members  of 
the  family.     In  laying  her  eggs  the  female  cuts  a  groove  in  the  tender 
canes  of  raspberry  and  blackberry  vines,  or  of  fruit  trees,  and  in  these 


B 


FIG.  :i8.  Stridulating  organs  of  .V7crocen(r«Mi  laurifolinm.  A,  dorsal 
aspect  of  file  (st)  when  the  tegrnina  are  closed ;  B,  ventral  aspect 
of  left  tegraen  to  show  file :  C,  dorsal  aspect  of  right  tegmen  to 

show  xcrapcr  (s). 


38 


CALIFORNIA  STATE   COMMISSION  OF  HORTICULTURE. 


her  eggs  are  deposited  in  a  long  row.  Much  damage  is  often  done  from 
this  cause,  when  the  insect  is  numerous,  as  the  twigs  are  likely  to  die 
above  the  point  of  damage. 

The  Earwigs. — Until  recently  the  earwigs  were  classed  with  the 
Orthoptera,  but  a  new  order,  Euplexoptera,  has  been  erected  for  them. 
These  insects  are  readily  recog- 
nized by  the  forceps-like  appen- 
dages at  the  end  of  the  body.  These 
organs  are  used  in  folding  the  wings 
of  the  insect,  which  are  snugly 
tucked  away  under  the  wing  covers 
when  at  rest.  They  are  vegetable- 
feeders,  and  where  numerous  do 
much  damage.  They  are  noctur- 
nal in  their  habits  and  are  not  fre- 
quently met  with  in  the  daytime. 
In  California  the  order  is  repre- 
sented by  Amsolabis,  a  black,  wingless  species,  about  three  fourths  of 
an  inch  long,  with  short,  heavy  forceps. 


FIG.  39.  Full- 
grown  larva 
of  earwig 
(  Forflcula 
auricularia). 
Enlarged. 


FIG.  40.  Adult  earwig  (For- 
ficula  auricularia).  En- 
larged. 


Order  HEMIPTERA. 

We  now  come  to  'the  order  of  most  importance  to  the  fruit-grower 
and  the  farmer,  for  in  this  we  find  the  greater  number  of  enemies  of 
plant  life;  in  fact,  while  there  are  some  beneficial  species  in  it,  we  may 
say  that  it  is  the  pest  order  of  the  insect  world.  In  this  we  find  the 
entire  group  of  scale  bugs,  the  aphids  or  plant-lice,  the  phylloxera  of 
the  grape,  and  woolly-aphis  of  the  apple;  it  gives  us  those  most  detested 
of  all  insects,  bedbugs  and  lice.  It  is  a  bad  order,  but  as  there  is  no 
such  thing  as  unmixed  evil  or  absolute  good,  so  even  this  order,  com- 
posed as  it  is  wholly  of  suckers,  supplies  us  with  some  members  that 
work  for  our  good.  There  are  those  which  prey  upon  their  kind;  the 
assassin-bugs  as  they  are  called,  from  the  fact  that  they  are  predaceous 
upon  other  insects  and  live  by  sucking  the  blood  of  their  fellows. 

The  name  Hemiptera  means  half-winged,  and  these  insects  are  so 
named  from  the  fact  that  most  of  the  members  of  this  order  have  wing 
covers  that  are  partly  thick  and  leathery,  and  partly  thin  and  mem- 
branous. While  this  name  was  given  to  the  order  at  an  early  date,  and 
was  tolerably  applicable  to  it,  still  there  were  found  to  be  a  great  many 
insects  which  properly  belonged  here  to  which  it  was  not  applicable,  as 
their  wings  were  not  half-and-half,  so  the  order  has  been  divided  into 
two  suborders,  called  Heteroptera,  having  diverse  wings,  and  Homop- 
tera,  having  similar  wings,  so  an  insect  in  this  order  is  either  Hemip- 
tera homoptera,  or  Hemiptera  heteroptera.  There  is  still  another  group 
belonging  to  this  order,  the  members  of  which  are  wingless,  which  prey 


ENTOMOLOGY    IN    OUTLINE  — HEMIPTERA.  39 

upon  other  animals,  and  protect  themselves  by  hiding  on  the  body  of 
their  host,  or  crawling  away  in  cracks  and  crevices,  to  issue  in  the  night 
when  all  is  still  and  suck  the  blood  of  their  victims.  This  group  is 
known  as  Parasita,  and  will  need  little  further  allusion,  as  it  only 
indirectly  affects  the  orchardist  and  farmer. 

The  Hemiptera  is  one  of  the  most  numerous  of  all  the  orders.  It 
includes  over  five  thousand  known  species  in  North  America,  and  to  it 
belongs  the  one  suborder  which  the  entomologist  recognizes  as  "bugs/' 
To  the  lay  mind  all  insects  are  bugs,  but  to  the  scientific  mind  the 
term  brings  up  a  member  of  the  order  Hemiptera  heteroptera;  these 
-are  the  true  bugs. 

Like  the  preceding  order,  the  metamorphosis  is  direct  or  incomplete. 
The  young  insect,  as  soon  as  hatched,  strongly  resembles  the  adult  in 
shape,  and,  in  many  cases,  in  coloring.  It  is  wingless  in  its  earlier 
stages,  and  in  some  species  always  so,  and  passes  through  several  molts 
in  attaining  its  adult  form.  The  winged  species  acquire  their  perfect 
wings  after  the  last  molt. 

The  members  of  this  order  are  very  diverse  in  form,  size,  and  mark- 
ings, and  there  is  no  order  in  which  there  is  such  disparity  in  the 
appearance  of  the  different  families.  We  have  within  it  the  Cicada 
and  the  mealy-bug,  the  giant  water-bug,  which  is  attracted  to  the  elec- 
tric light  in  such  great  numbers  as  to  have  acquired  the  name  of 
"electric-light  bug,"  and  the  common  scale-bug.  In  it  we  find  giants 
of  the  insect  world,  and  species  so  minute  as  to  require  a  strong  glass 
to  make  them  visible.  But  all  through,  there  is  one  characteristic 
which  is  possessed  in  common  by  all,  big  and  little  alike — they  are  all 
suckers,  and  live  by  imbibing  the  juices  or  blood  of  plants  and  animals. 
They  form  the  greater  part  of  the  Haustellates,  or  sucking  insects,  the 
other  half  of  the  insect  world  being  known  as  the  Mandibulates,  or 
biters — a  very  respectable  group  compared  with  the  one  we  are  now 
treating  on.  The  mouth  parts  are  formed  for  piercing  and  sucking,  and 
vary  in  length  in  different  species.  The  sucking  beak  can  readily  be 
seen  by  examining  the  insect,  where  it  will  be  detected  on  the  under 
side,  folded  close  to  the  body.  In  many  species  there  is  a  groove  into 
which  the  beak  fits  snugly  when  not  in  use,  and  in  these  it  is  sometimes 
difficult  to  detect  it.  This  beak  is  really  a  compound  instrument,  and 
is  composed  of  four  bristles  inclosed  in  a  jointed  sheath.  Two  of  these 
bristles  are  supposed  to  represent  the  mandibles  and  two  the  maxillae 
of  the  mandibulate  insects,  while  the  sheath  takes  the  place  of  the 
labium. 

As  stated,  this  order  is  divided  into  three  suborders  :  1.  Parasita; 
2.  Homoptera;  3.  Heteroptera. 

Of  the  first  of  these,  little  more  need  be  said.  Nearly  every  animal 
and  most  birds  have  a  particular  species  of  lice  which  prey  upon  them, 
and  people  engaged  in  breeding  animals  and  fowls  are  sometimes  con- 
fronted with  a  serious  problem  in  getting  rid  of  them.  This  is  said  to 


40  CALIFORNIA  STATE  COMMISSION  OF  HORTICULTURE. 

be  a  degraded  family,  since  they  have  through  their  degraded  habits 
lost  their  wings,  and  to  a  great  extent  powers  of  locomotion,  being 
wholly  dependent  upon  the  bodies  of  their  hosts,  to  which  they  are 
attached  all  their  lives.  They  have,  however,  become  highly  special- 
ized for  this  style  of  life,  and  are  well  adapted  for  it. 

While  on  this  subject  we  may  state  that  the  bird-lice  are  not  true 
lice,  nor  do  they  belong  to  the  order  now  under  consideration.  With 
the  true  lice,  the  mouth  parts  are  made  for  suction — haustellate — and 
they  properly  belong  to  the  Hemiptera,  the  bird-lice  and  the  book-lice 
have  biting  mouth  parts,  and  for  these  separate  orders  have  been 
erected,  the  biting  bird-lice  being  classified  as  Mallophaga,  and  the  book 
lice  as  Corrodentia. 

Suborder  HETEROPTERA.      (The  True  Bugs.) 

The  word  Heteroptera  means  having  diverse  or  different  wings,  and 
included  in  this  suborder  are  the'  true  bugs  of  the  entomologist,  for 
while,  as  before  stated,  to  the  average  person  all  insects  are  bugs,  to 
the  entomologist  the  term  means  only  members  of  this  suborder. 

The  common  squash-bug  may  be  taken  as  the  type  of  this  group. 
When  winged,  their  wings  differ  from  the  suborder  Homoptera  in  the 
composition  and  position  of  the  wing  covers  and  in  the  direction  of  the 
head.  The  insects  in  this  suborder  have  the  head  horizontal,  on  a 
plane  with  the  body,  the  beak  arising  from  the  front.  The  wing 
covers  lie  flat  on  the  back,  and  are  composed  of  three  separate  pieces: 
corium,  clavus,  and  membrane.  These  parts  are  modified  in  different 
species  in  a  great  variety  of  ways. 

The  young  of  this  suborder  are  known  as  nymph se,  and  after  the  third 
molt  show  the  rudiments  of  wings.  The  nymphse  are  sometimes  quite 
different  in  coloring  to  the  mature  insect.  Some  difficulty  has  been 
experienced  in  arranging  a  perfect  synopsis  of  this  suborder,  which  has 
been  arranged  in  twenty-six  families.  They  have  been  divided  into  two- 
groups,  the  long-horned  bugs  and  the  short-horned  bugs.  About  one 
third  of  them  live  in  the  water,  a  large  section  near  the  water,  and  the 
rest  on  land.  They  may  therefore  be  classed  as  Aquatic,  Amphibious, 
and  Terrestrial  bugs.  The  following  synopsis  of  families  is  arranged 
by  Comstock: 

THE  SHORT-HORNED  BUGS.     Bugs  with  short  antennae,  which  are  nearly  or  quite 
concealed  beneath  the  head. 

BUGS  THAT  LIVE  WITHIN  WATER. 

The  Water-boatmen.    Family  Corisidee. 

The  Back-swimmers.     Family  Notonectidse. 

The  Water-Scorpions.     Family  Nepidse. 

The  Giant  Water-bugs.     Family  Belostomidse. 

The  Creeping  Water-bugs.     Family  Naucoridie. 
BUGS  THAT  LIVE  NEAR  WATER. 

The  Toad-shaped  Bugs.     Family  Galgulidse. 


ENTOMOLOGY   IN   OUTLINE  —  HEMIPTER A.  41 

THE  LONG-HORNED  BUGS.  Bugs  with  antennae  at  least  as  long  as  the  head,  and 
prominent  except  in  the  Phymatidae,  where  they  are  concealed  under  the  sides  of 
the  prothorax. 

THE  SEMI-AQUATIC  BUGS. 

The  Shore-bugs.     Family  Salididae. 

The  Broad-shouldered  Water-striders.    Family  Veliidse. 

The  Water-striders.     Family  Hydrobatidse. 

The  Marsh-treaders.     Family  Limnobatidse. 
THB  LAND-BUGS. 

The  Land-bugs  with  four-jointed  antennae. 

The  Thread-legged  Bugs.     Family  Emesidae. 

The  Assassin-bugs.     Family  Reduviidae. 

The  Damsel-bugs.    Family  Nabidae. 

The  Ambush-bugs.     Family  Phymatidee. 

The  Flat-bugs.    Family  Aradidae. 

The  Lace-bugs.     Family  Tingitidae. 

The  Bedbug  and  the  Flower-bugs.     Family  Acanthiidae. 

The  Leaf-bugs.     Family  Capsidae. 

The  Red-bug  Family.     Family  Pyrrhocoridae. 

The  Chinch-bug  Family.     Family  Lygaeidae. 

The  Stilt-bugs.     Family  Berytidae. 

The  Squash-bug  Family.     Family  Coreidae. 
The  Land-bugs  with  Jive-jointed  antennse. 

The  Stink-bug  Family.     Family  Pentatomidse. 

The  Burrower-bugs.    Family  Cydnidse. 

The  Negro-bugs.     Family  Corimelsenidae. 

The  Shield-backed  bugs.    Family  Scutelleridae. 

Many  of  these  are  of  little  interest  to  us  and  can  be  dismissed  with 
a  mere  allusion. 

Family  Corisidae  (Water-boatmen).  These  are  smallish  insects,  less 
than  half  an  inch  in  length,  and  frequent  pools,  streams,  and  ponds. 
They  are  surrounded  by  a  film  of  air  and  look  like  a  bubble  in  the 
water,  as  they  are  seen  usually  on  the  bottoms.  They  are  generally 
distributed  over  the  United  States,  and  are  predaceous  on  other  water 
insects.  They  have  no  economic  importance  with  us,  but  in  some  parts 
of  Mexico  they  are  so  numerous  in  the  ponds  that  aquatic  plants  upon 
which  they  have  deposited  their  eggs  are  gathered,  dried,  and  beaten  in 
order  that  the  eggs  may  be  secured  for  food. 

Family  Notoneetidse  (Back-swimmers).  These  are  aquatic  bugsr 
their  backs  shaped  like  the  bottom  of  a  boat.  They  always  swim  on 
their  backs,  hence  the  common  name.  Their  hind  legs  are  oar-shaped, 
and  they  pass  through  the  water  with  their  aid  with  great  rapidity. 
They  prey  upon  young  fish,  and  probably  are  destructive  in  this  respect. 

Family  Nepidse  (Water-Scorpions).  This  is  another  of  the  aquatic 
bugs,  and  derives  its  common  name  from  the  possession  of  a  long 
respiratory  tube,  at  the  end  of  the  abdomen,  which  gives  it  a  strong 
resemblance  to  the  land-scorpion.  There  are  two  distinct  types  of 
these  insects,  one  having  an  oval,  flat,  thin  body,  the  other  a  linear  and 


42 


CALIFORNIA  STATE  COMMISSION  OF   HORTICULTURE. 


cylindrical  body.  The  latter  strongly  resembles  a  stick  in  the  water, 
where  it  is  usually  found  in  the  dirt  of  the  bottom.  The  family  is 
predaceous,  and  probably  their  peculiar  form  enables  them  to  capture 
their  prey. 

Family  Belostomidae  (Electric-light  Bugs).  In  the  hot  summer 
nights,  a  very  large  insect  will  be  seen  flying  around  the  electric  lights 
in  cities  near  watercourses  or  lakes.  Many  of  these  fall  to  the  ground, 
where  they  are  crushed  under  the  heel  of  the  pedestrian.  These  have 
become  so  noticeable  since  the  introduction  of  electric  lights  that  many 
people  believe  that  they  have  been  produced  by  the  electricity,  and 
their  common  name  of  "electric-light  bugs"  has  been  given  them  in 
recent  years.  These  belong  to  the  family  Belostomidse,  which  family 

includes  the  giants  of 
the  bug  order.  The  com- 
mon electric-light  bug 
in  our  California  towns 
will  reach  a  length  of 
two  inches  and  is  the 
Belostoma  americanum, 
while  in  the  tropics  and 
in  Mexico,  specimens  are 
common  three  to  four 
inches  in  length.  In 
their  larval  form  they 
are  wholly  aquatic. 
Their  eggs  are  attached 
to  the  stems  of  water 
plants  or  other  conven- 
ient objects,  and,  as  soon 

as  hatched,  they  commence  their  predatory  career.  They  are  exceedingly 
destructive  to  young  fish,  the  young  of  frogs  and  toads,  and  other 
small  game  within  their  reach,  which  they  capture  by  means  of  their 
strong  fore  feet  and  leisurely  suck  the  blood.  This  insect  is  very 
numerous  in  Sacramento  and  in  the  valley  where  the  great  water  areas 
furnish  it  ideal  breeding  grounds,  and  on  summer  nights  they  may  be 
seen  by  thousands  under  the  electric  lights. 

A  peculiar  member  of  this  family  is  the  genus  Zaitha,  in  which  the  female 
lays  her  eggs  on  the  back  of  the  male,  and  he  is  compelled  to  carry 
them  about  and  care  for  them  until  he  is  relieved  of  the  load  by  their 
hatching.  The  male  resents  this  indignity,  but  the  female  compels  him 
to  submit,  and  sometimes  this  is  accomplished  only  after  a  struggle  of 
several  hours.  In  spite  of  protests  and  struggles,  however,  his  better 
half  always  gets  the  best  of  the  argument  and  he  has  to  take  care  of 
the  babies.  It  was  at  one  time  thought  that  the  female  laid  the  eggs 


FIG.  41.    Electric-light  bug  (Belostoma  americanum). 
Natural  size. 


ENTOMOLOGY  IN    OUTLINE  —  HEMIPTERA.  43 

on  her  own  back,  but  this  belief  was  corrected  by  Miss  Slater,  who 
made  a  study  of  this  insect.  In  speaking  of  it,  this  lady  says:  "That 
the  male  chafes  under  the  burden  is  unmistakable;  in  fact,  my  sus- 
picions as  to  the  sex  of  the  egg-carrier  were  first  aroused  by  watching 
one  in  an  aquarium  which  was  trying  to  free  itself  from  its  load  of 
eggs,  an  exhibition  of  a  lack  of  maternal  interest  not  to  be  expected  in 
a  female  carrying  her  own  eggs.  Generally  the  Zaithas  are  very  active, 
darting  about  with  great  rapidity;  but  an  egg-bearer  remains  quietly 
clinging  to  a  leaf  with  the  end  of  the  abdomen  just  out  of  the  water. 
If  attacked,  he  meekly  receives  the  blows,  seemingly  preferring  death, 
which,  in  several  cases,  was  the  result,  to  the  indignity  of  carrying  and 
caring  for  the  eggs." 

Family  Naueoridse  (Creeping  Water-bugs).  These  are  rather  small, 
flat-bodied,  oval  insects,  predaceous  in  their  habits,  but  not  common  on 
this  coast,  and  of  no  economic  importance. 

Family  Galgulidse  (Toad-shaped  Bugs).  These  include  a  family  of 
predaceous  bugs  only  found  near  the  margins  of  streams,  and  which  are 
of  no  importance  economically. 

Family  Salididae  (Shore-bugs).  These  are  small,  soft,  dark-colored 
insects,  with  white  or  yellowish  markings.  Some  are  shiny  black,  but 
none  of  any  importance  to  us. 

Family  Veliidse  (Broad-shouldered  Water-striders).  This  is  a  small 
family  of  peculiarly  shaped  insects.  Their  legs  are  formed  for  running 
over  the  surface  of  water,  but  they  can  also  travel  on  land  with  consid- 
erable speed. 

Family  Hydrobatidse  (Water-striders).  The  members  of  this  family 
are  well  known  to  all  who  have  ever  observed  insects  skimming  along 
over  the  surface  of  the  water.  Often  they  gather  in  large  numbers,  and, 
when  disturbed,  dart,  with  lightning-like  rapidity,  in  all  directions. 
They  have  no  economic  value,  being  neither  good  nor  harmful. 

Family  Limnobatidse  (Marsh-treaders).  There  is  but  a  single  species 
of  this  family  in  the  United  States,  and  this  is  of  no  economic  value. 

Family  Emesidse  (Thread-legged  Bugs).  This  is  a  small  family  of 
very  peculiar  bugs.  The  body  is  long  and  slender  and  the  middle  and 
hind  legs  very  long  and  thread-like.  The  fore- legs  are  constructed  for 
grasping,  and  resemble  those  of  the  praying  mantis.  It  frequents  trees, 
and  is  predaceous  in  its  habits. 

Family  Reduviidse  (Assassin-bugs).  We  now  come  to  a  family  of 
more  interest  to  us,  as  in  this  are  many  of  the  most  beneficial  of  the 


44  CALIFORNIA  STATE  COMMISSION  OF  HORTICULTURE. 

bug  family.  The  members  of  this  family  are  all  predaceous  and  vora- 
cious. They  usually'  attack  other  insects  and  suck  their  juices,  but  the 
higher  animals  are  not  free  from  their  attacks,  and  the  kissing-bug 
belongs  here.  .They  have  a  very  powerful  beak,  and  can  inflict  a  pain- 
ful wound,  if  not  carefully  handled.  One  of  the  members  of  this  family 
has  a  local  reputation,  and  in  the  mountains  it  is  known  as  the  lumber- 


FIG.  42.    Wheel-bug  (Prionidit*  cristatnx).     A,  adult  insect ;  B,  adult  insect  devouring  a  cater- 
pillar; C,  larva;  D,  larva;  E,  larva  devouring  a  caterpillar ;  F.  egg  cluster.    All  enlarged. 

man's  bedbug.  It  is  sometimes  known  as  the  Big  Bedbug,  and  is  the 
Conorhinus  sanguisugvs. 

A  peculiar  member  of  this  family  is  Opsicaetus  personatus,  which,  in 
its  younger  form,  covers  itself  with  particles  of  dust,  and  is  coated  even 
to  the  tips  of  its  feet  and  antennae.  It  enters  houses  and  is  an  inveter- 
ate enemy  of  the  bedbug,  which  it  captures  and  sucks  the  blood  from. 
From  this  habit  it  is  known  as  the  u  Masked  bedbug  hunter."  This 
mask  is  worn  only  during  its  immature  stage;  when  fully  developed  it  is 
about  half  an  inch  in  length,  and  is  one  of  about  fifty  members  of  this 
family  known  as  kissing-bugs.  It  preys  also  upon  flies  and  other 
insects.  It  has  a  very  sharp  beak,  which  it  uses  in  its  defense. 

Another  of  the  kissing-bugs,  which  appeared  in  large  numbers  in 


ENTOMOLOGY   IN    OUTLINE  — HEM  IPTERA.  45 

• 

California  some  years  ago,  is  Melanolestes  picipes.  This  insect  is  black, 
and  is  commonly  found  hiding  beneath  stones  and  boards.  It  can 
inflict  a  very  painful  wound. 

The  wheel-bug  (Prionidits  cristatus)  is  one  of  the  most  beneficial  of  the 
bug  class,  as  it  preys  upon  leaf-eating  caterpillars,  and  does  not  hesitate 
to  attack  hairy  worms,  as  the  tussock-moths,  fall  web-worm,  etc. 

This  is  a  large  family,  representing  nine  subfamilies  and  at  least 
fifty  genera.  They  are  usually  long,  rakish-looking  insects,  with  promi- 
nent, bulging  eyes.  The  body  color  is  generally  dark-brown  or  black, 
although  some  of  the  members  are  lighter  colored  and  in  some  cases 
beautifully  marked.  They  have  a  three-jointed  beak  and  are  quick  in 
their  motions.  Altogether  the  members  of  this  family  Reduviidae  or 
assassin-bugs  may  be  regarded  as  friends  of  the  fruit-grower,  florist, 
and  farmer,  and  should  be  protected,  even  at  the  expense  of  an  occa- 
sional puncture  from  their  beak. 

Family  Nabidae  (Damsel-bugs).  This  is  a  small  family  of  preda- 
ceous  insects.  They  generally  hide  among  the  blossoms  and  foliage  of 
plants,  where  they  prey  upon  small  insects. 

Family  Phymatidse  (Ambush-bugs).  These  insects  are  called  ambush 
bugs  from  their  habit  of  concealing  themselves  and  seizing  their  prey 
unawares.  The  most  striking  feature  of  this  insect  is  in  the  peculiar 
form  of  the  front  legs,  which  are  especially  adapted  for  seizing  and 
holding  their  prey.  While  a  small  insect,  it  will  seize  and  hold  an 
insect  very  much  larger  than  itself,  and  will  catch  cabbage-worms,  bees, 
and  even  wasps,  and  devour  them. 

Family  Aradidse  (Flat-bugs).  This  family  comprises  the  flattest  of 
all  the  bugs.  Its  members  live  under  the  bark  of  decaying  trees  and  in 
cracks  where  their  flat  bodies  make  it  possible  for  them  to  creep. 

Family  Tingitidse  (Lace-bugs).  This  is  a  family  of  very  small  but 
very  beautiful  insects.  Their  common  name  is  given  on  account  of  the 
beautiful  lace-like  markings  of  the  wing  covers,  which  are  reticulated  in 
a  manner  strongly  resembling  fine  lace  work.  This  insect  is  very  com- 
mon in  California,  where  it  attacks  many  plants  and  sometimes  becomes 
so  numerous  as  to  seriously  interfere  with  the  health  of  the  plant 
attacked. 

Family  Aeanthiidao  (Bedbugs  and  Flower-bugs).  The  bedbug  needs 
no  description  here.  It  is  too  well  known,  and  no  insect  is  more  thor- 
oughly detested.  But  there  is  a  very  close  relation  to  this  pest,  which 
have  wing  covers  fully  developed  and  which  are  found  on  flowers  and 
in  other  locations.  They  are  predaceous,  and  are  known  as  the  flower- 
bugs. 


46 


CALIFORNIA  STATE  COMMISSION  OP  HORTICULTURE. 


Family  Capsidae  (Leaf-bugs).  This  is  the  largest  of  any  of  the  fam- 
ilies of  true  bugs,  including  more  than  two  hundred  species  in  the 
United  States  alone.  Most  of  the  members  live  upon  leaves  of  plants, 
but  some  of  them  are  predaceous  and  prey  upon  other  insects.  In  this 
family  we  find  the  tarnished  plant-bug,  the  four-lined  leaf-bug,  and 
many  other  of  our  injurious  species. 

Family  Pyrrhoeoridae  ( Red-bugs).  Insects  belonging  to  this  family 
are  usually  large  in  size,  stoutly  built  and  marked  with  strongly  con- 
trasting colors,  in  which  red  and  black  are  conspicuous.  The  cotton- 
stainer  is  a  member  of  this  family,  and  has  earned  an  unenviable 
notoriety  from  its  habit  of  puncturing  and  discoloring  the  opening 
bolls  of  the  cotton  plant.  This  bug  is  a  serious  pest  in  Florida,  where 
it  pierces  the  rind  of  oranges,  causing  decay  to  s.et  in. 

Family  Lygseidse  (Chinch-bugs).  This  is  another  large  family,  com- 
prising nine  subfamilies  and  a  hundred  and  fifty  species  in  the  United 
States.  The  chinch-bug  is  the  representative  of  the 
family,  and  probably  the  most  destructive  member 
of  it.  This  is  a  rather  small  bug,  but  its  destruction 
in  the  United  States  each  year  will  run  into  many 
millions  of  dollars.  It  has  two  broods  a  year,  and 
appears  in  enormous  numbers,  attacking  the  stems 
of  grain  and  grass.  While  we  have  this  insect  in 
California,  it  has  never  been  so  destructive  as  in 
the  Mississippi  Valley,  due  probably  to  the  custom 
which  prevails  here  of  burning  over  the  stubble  in 
the  grain  fields  after  harvest,  by  which  means  these 
insects  are  destroyed  by  millions  and  their  increase 
prevented.  In  this  family,  too,  we  find  the  false 
chinch-bug,  a  very  common  insect  here,  and  which  somewhat  resem- 
bles the  true  chinch-bug,  but  is  never  so  numerous  or  destructive. 

Family  Berytidse  (Stilt- 
bugs).  This  is  a  small  fam- 
ily of  land  bugs,  in  which  the 
legs,  body,  and  antennae  are 
all  very  slender.  They  re- 
semble the  crane-fly  in  gen- 
eral build,  and  are  found  in 
the  undergrowth  of  woods 
and  pastures. 


FIG.  43.  Chinch-hug 
(Blissus  leucopterus). 
Enlarged. 


FIG.  44.    False  chinch-bug  (Nysius  angustalus). 
Enlarged. 


Family  Coreidse  (Squash-bugs).  This  is  another  large  family,  and 
is  divided  into  many  subfamilies  and  species.  The  family  comprises 
both  carnivorous  and  vegetable-feeding  forms,  and  in  some  cases 


ENTOMOLOGY   IN    OUTLINE  — HEM  IPTER  A. 


47 


the  same  species  will   attack   both   animals  and   plants.     A  common 
species  in  our  State  is  Leptocoris  trivittatus,  the  box-elder  bug. 

Family  Pentatomidse  (Stink-bugs).  Every  one  who  has  lived  in  the 
country,  and  especially  all  our  fruit-growers,  is  well  acquainted  with 
the  stink-bugs,  whose  popu- 
lar name  is  perhaps  more  de- 
scriptive than  elegant.  They 
are  broad,  flat  bugs,  generally 
rather  large,  and  mostly  dull 
colored.  Most  of  them  are 
vegetable  feeders,  although  ct 
the  family  contains  some  pre- 
daceous  species.  One  of  the 
worst  species  of  this  family 
with  us  is  the  Harlequin  cab- 
bage-bug, which  sometimes 
appears  in  great  numbers, 
and  does  much  damage  to 
growing  plants. 

Family  Cydnidse  (Burrow- 
ing-bugs).  These  bugs  have 
a  roundish,  elliptical  body, 
usually  black,  or  very  dark  in 
color,  and  are  found  burrow- 
ing in  sandy  places,  under 
sticks,  stones,  or  near  the  roots  or  plants. 


FIG.  45.  Box-elder  plant  bug  (Leptocoris  Irivittatiis). 
a,  eggs,  enlarged ;  6,  c,  d,  different  stages  of  imma- 
ture bugs,  all  enlarged.  (After  Howard.) 


Family  Corimelsenidse  (Negro-bugs).     These  are  small,  black  insects, 
and  are  sometimes  found  in  quantity  on  blackberries,  raspberries,  and 


FIG.  46.  Harlequin  cabbage-bug  (Murgantia  histrionica).  a,  larva;  b,  pupa;  c,  eggs, 
natural  size :  d,  eggs,  enlarged;  e,  eggs,  seen  from  above,  enlarged ;  /,  adult  insect; 
g,  adult  insect,  wings  expanded. 

strawberries.     They  do  not  confine  themselves  to  these  fruits,  however. 
as  they  sometimes  attack  potato  vines  and  do  much  damage. 

Family  Seutellepidse  (Shield-back  bugs).  This  is  not  a  numerous 
family.  They  are  plant-eating  insects,  and  somewhat  resemble  the 
negro-bugs  in  general  appearance. 


48  CALIFORNIA  STATE  COMMISSION  OF  HORTICULTURE. 

Suborder  HOMOPTERA. 

The  name  of  this  suborder  is  derived  from  two  Greek  words,  homos, 
the  same,  and  pteron,  a  wing.  Its  members  differ  from  those  of  the 
other  suborder  in  that  the  wings  are  of  the  same  texture  throughout, 
there  being  no  difference  in  the  two  pairs  of  wings.  The  wings  when 
at  rest  are  usually  sloping,  like  th'e  roof  of  a  house.  They  have  no 
neck,  the  head  being  closely  attached  to  the  thorax,  and  this  connec- 
tion is  so  close  that  in  many  species  the  beak  seems  to  exude  from  the 
thorax  itself  and  to  arise  from  between  the  fore  legs.  This  suborder  is 
divided  into  nine  families,  which  are  given  by  Comstock,  as  follows: 

The  Cicadas.     Family  Cicadidse. 
The  Lantern-fly  family.     Family  Fulgoridae. 
The  Spittle  Insects.     Family  Cercopidae. 
The  Leaf-hoppers.     Family  Jassidse. 
The  Tree-hoppers.     Family  Membracidse. 
The  Jumping  Plant-lice.     Family  Psyllida?. 
The  Plant-lice.     Family  Aphididse. 
The  Aleyrodes.     Family  Aleyrodidse. 
The  Scale-bugs.     Family  Coccidse. 

In  looking  over  this  list,  it  will  be  noticed  that  here  we  have  a  great 
part  of  the  more  injurious  pests  of  the  farmer  and  fruit-grower.  In 
fact,  in  the  whole  of  this  suborder  there  are  not  any  that  are  not  pests, 
and  many  of  them  the  worst  of  the  insect  enemies  with  which  we  have 
to  contend. 

Professor  Uhler,  our  authority  in  this  order  of  insects,  writes  that 
"this  grand  division  of  the  order  contains  the  greatest  number  of  large 
species,  and  the  widest  range  of  diversity  in  the  forms  of  all  stages. 
Comparatively  few  are  destitute  of  wings,  except  in  one  sex  of  the  lowest 
group;  but  some  have  these  organs  short  and  unfinished,  and  it  is  but 
very  rarely  that  we  meet  with  one  of  this  kind  fully  winged.  This 
division  .is  also  remarkable  for  the  blunt  face  and  backward  pressed 
elements  of  the  head  and  breast,  thus  carrying  the  rostrum  far  under- 
neath. Both  kinds  of  eyes  are  generally  present;  the  compound  ones 
being  generally  large  and  prominent,  while  the  single  ones,  ocelli,  are 
like  little  convex  gems,  placed  between  the  larger  eyes  on  the  vertex  or 
front,  but  occasionally,  as  in  Fulgoridse,  on  the  sides  of  the  cheeks, 
between  the  latter  and  the  antennse.  There  are  usually  two  ocelli, 
although  in  Cicadidse  and  most  Psyllidse  they  are  three  in  number  and 
are  placed  in  front,  forming  a  triangle.  The  antennas  are  usually 
situated  in  the  hollow  between  the  eyes,  and  are  composed  of  a  few 
expanded  joints  at  the  base,  with  a  tapering,  slender,  bristle-shaped 
termination.  Exceptions  occur  in  Psyllidae,  AphididaB,  and  Coccidae, 


ENTOMOLOGY  IN  OUTLINE  —  HEMIPTERA. 


49 


where  these  organs  are  commonly  filiform  and  somewhat  thickened  at 
the  tip.  There  are  two  principal  types  of  legs  in  this  division,  although 
these  are  variously  modified  for  particular  modes  of  life,  the  one  being 
adapted  for  crawling,  the  other  for  leaping.  The  former  have  short 
legs,  generally  stout;  the  latter  have  the  hind  legs  long,  often  curved 
and  set  with  rows  of  stiff  spines." 

Family  Cieadidse.  This  includes  the  harvest-flies,  seventeen-year 
locusts,  etc.  These  insects  are  of  large  size,  and  are  generally  well 
known.  This  family 
lias  a  peculiarity 
found  in  no  other 
member  of  the  Hem- 
iptera:  the  possession 
of  a  musical  appara- 
tus. The  song  of  the 
cicada  is  well  known, 
and  is  produced  by 
special  organs  con- 
sisting of  two  large 
parchment  sacs.  The 
surfaces  are  ribbed 
and,  when  in  action, 
the  air  is  forced 
against  these  ribbed 
surfaces,  producing 
sound  vibrations  and 
forming  the  song.  It- 
is  probable  that  this 


'song"  is  used  for  the 


FIG.  47.  Periodical  cicada  (C.  septendecim).  a,  pupa,  ready  to 
change;  6.  pupa  skin  from  which  the  adult  (c)  has 
emerged  :  e.  eggs  taken  from  the  egg-punctures  (d). 

purpose  of  attracting 

the  female,  as  these  organs  are  found  in  the  male  only.     This  fact  was 

known  to  the  ancients  and  an  old  Greek,  Xenarchos,  says: 

"Happy  the  cicadas'  lives. 
For  they  all  have  voiceless  wives." 

The  females  deposit  their  eggs  in  slits  which  they  make  in  the  twigs 
of  trees;  these  eggs  hatch  in  about  six  weeks  and  the  young  drop  to  the 
ground  and  bury  themselves  in  the  earth,  where  they  are  supposed  to 
attach  themselves  to  the  roots  of  trees  and  shrubs,  and  where  they 
remain  until  they  reach  their  mature  stage,  when  they  force  their  way 
from  the  earth  and  attach  themselves  to  any  convenient  object.  Here 
the  back  of  the  pupa  skin  splits  and  the  mature  insect,  fully  winged, 
creeps  forth.  It  requires  some  little  time  for  its  wings  to  fully  develop, 
when  the  newly  hatched  cicada  takes  flight  to  start  a  new  cycle. 
4— E 


50  CALIFORNIA  STATE  COMMISSION  OF  HORTICULTURE. 

The  most  remarkable  thing  connected  with  this  family  is  the  length 
of  the  larval  stage  of  the  two  members,  known  as  "Seventeen-year"  and 
"Thirteen-year"  locusts.  These  broods  have  been  watched  and  recorded 
by  entomologists,  and,  in  one  case,  they  are  known  to  appear  in  seven- 
teen and  in  the  other  in  thirteen  years.  It  is,  therefore,  supposed  that 
their  larval,  or  growing,  stage  requires  seventeen  and  thirteen  years 
respectively.  This  is  a  most  remarkable  thing  in  the  insect  world,  as 
most  of  these  animals  have  lives  of  short  duration,  rarely  covering  a 
longer  period  than  a  year  or  two,  though  this  is  exceeded  in  a  few 
instances.  But  a  seventeen-year-old  insect  is  a  phenomenon  that  might 
be  doubted,  were  it  not  that  the  records  have  been  accurately  kept  and 
prove  it. 

Family  Fulgoridse  (Lantern-flies).  In  the  tropics  of  South  America, 
members  of  this  family  attain  great  size  and  are  phosphorescent,  from 
which  fact  we  have  their  common  name.  The  family  is  represented 
with  us  by  some  small  and  insignificant  species. 

Family  Cereopidse  (Spittle-bugs,  Frog-hoppers,  etc.).  Often  during 
the  summer  months  one  will  notice  masses  of  froth  on  shrubbery: 
upon  removing  this,  a  small,  soft-bodied  insect  will  be  discovered 
beneath  it.  Sometimes  there  will  be  two  or  more  of  these  insects  under 

one  mass  of  froth.  These  are  the 
spittle-bugs,  and  the  froth,  which  is 
composed  of  the  sap  of  the  bush  upon 
which  they  are  lodged  and  which  is 
pumped  out  by  them,  is  their  means 
of  protection.  Clear  this  away  a  few 
times  and  keep  the  insect  clear  of  it, 
FIG.  48.  Frog-hopper  or  spittle  insect  (Aph-  and  it  will  dry  up  and  die.  At  its  last 

rophorasv.).    Slightly  enlarged.  mQ^  &   ^^  gpace  under  ^  froth  .& 

formed,  and  the  mature  insect,  no  longer  needing  the  moisture  for  its 
safety,  emerges  a  perfect  frog-hopper,  and  wanders  about  the  plant. 

This  is  quite  a  large  family,  and  includes  a  number  of  species.  All 
are  injurious,  where  they  appear  in  numbers,  as  they  exist  by  sucking 
the  juices  of  the  plants  upon  which  they  lodge. 

Family  Jassidse  (Leaf-hoppers).  This  is  a  family  of  insects,  gener- 
ally small  in  size,  but  very  destructive.  In  this  family  is  Erythoneura 
vitis,  the  grapevine  leaf-hopper,  which  has  a  most  unfavorable  reputa- 
tion in  the  raisin  vineyards  of  this  State,  where  it  is  commonly  known 
as  "  thrips,"  although  it  is  not  at  all  related  to  that  insect.  During  the 
summer  season,  they  sometimes  appear  in  the  vineyards  by  millions, 
and  by  sucking  the  juices  of  the  vines  through  the  leaves  do  immense 
damage.  These  insects  hibernate  in  the  vineyards  or  vicinity,  and 


ENTOMOLOGY  IX  OUTLINE  —  HEMIPTERA. 


51 


FIG.  49.  Buffalo  tree- 
hopper  (Ceresa  bv- 
balus). 


under  leaves  or  rubbish,  and  the  best  preventive  method  to  be  applied 
against  them  is  to  thoroughly  clean  the  vineyard  and  its  neighborhood 
of  all  loose  rubbish  and  burn  it.  By  this  means  the  next  season's  crop 
of  the  pest  can  be  greatly  reduced. 

They  are  very  destructive  in  meadows,  and  it  is  stated  that  these 
insects  destroy  from  one  fourth  to  one  half  of  the  grass  that  springs  up 
annually.  They  are  more  numerous  than  any  other  insect,  except, 
perhaps,  the  aphids. 

Family  MembraeidaB  (Tree-hoppers).  In  this  family  we  find  some 
of  the  most  grotesque  forms  in  the  animal  kingdom.  This  is  the  typical 
family  of  the  suborder  Homoptera.  Its  members  are 
of  every  conceivable  form,  and  are  described  by  Prof. 
Otto  Lugger  as  "  arched,  compressed,  depressed,  hump- 
backed, spindle-shaped,  pointed  at  both  ends,  inflated, 
hemispherical  or  conical,  and  besides  this  they  are 
furnished  with  an  endless  variety  of  superficial 
attachments."  They  live  principally  on  trees  and 
bushes,  and  all  possess  great  leaping  powers,  hence 
their  common  name.  They  are  usually  not  sufficiently  numerous  to  be 
destructive  and  have  therefore  little  economic  value. 

Family  Psyllidse  (Jumping  Plant-lice).  Members  of  this  family 
resemble  the  cicadas  in  general  build,  but  are  much  smaller,  being  from 
a  sixth  to  an  eighth  of  an  inch  in  length.  They  differ  from  the  aphids 
in  being  of  a  more  solid  texture,  with  stouter  legs,  the 
hinder  pair  being  especially  strong  and  fitted  for 
jumping.  In  their  adult  form,  both  sexes  are  winged. 
A  peculiarity  in  some  of  the  species  of 
this  family  is  the  bifurcated  antennae. 
In  these  the  feelers  are  split  and  end 
in  two  bristle-like  points.  Some  of 
these  species  exude  a  honey-dew,  and 
in  this  respect  approach  the  aphids. 
The  commonest  and  most  destructive 
member  of  this  family  is  the  pear-tree 
Psylla  (Psylla  pyricola).  This  is  a 
very  small  insect,  not  over  a  sixteenth  of  an  inch  in  length,  but  it 
often  occurs  in  such  quantities  as  to  do  enormous  damage  to  the  pear 
orchards. 

Family  Aphididse  (Plant-lice).  This  family  is  closely  akin  to  the 
foregoing,  and  in  some  of  its  many  species  is  known  to  nearly  every 
one;  to  all  who  have  endeavored  to  grow  flowers  or  vegetables,  or  who 
have  noticed  trees  at  all.  It  is  a  very  extensive  family,  and  includes 


FIG.  50.  Pear-tree 
Psylla)  Psylla  pyri- 
cola). Enlarged. 


FIG.  51.  Larva  of 
Psylla  pyricola. 
Enlarged. 


52 


CALIFORNIA  STATE  COMMISSION  OF  HORTICULTURE. 


FIG.  52.  Aphids  or  plant  lice.  Winged  and  wing- 
less forms.  1  and  3  natural  size.  2  and  4  greatly 
enlarged. 


many  species,  some  of  which  attack  most  forms  of  vegetation.  In  this 
family  we  have  the  phylloxera  and  the  woolly-aphis,  and  many  other 
well-known  forms,  all  exceedingly  destructive  to  vegetation.  The  larg- 
est species  is  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in  length,  and  from  this  they 
range  down  until  it  requires  a  good  eye,  sometimes  assisted  by  a  mag- 
nifying glass,  to  see  the  smaller  members.  Some  are  subterranean, 

living  wholly  underground;  some 
are  aerial,  living  on  the  tops  of 
plants;  while  some  are  both,  and 
pass  one  stage  of  their  existence 
underground  and  another  above. 
Insects  belonging  to  this  fam- 
ily are  soft-bodied,  gregarious, 
and  most  numerous  in  the  wing- 
less form.  They  have  absolutely 
no  means  of  defense,  being  de- 
stroyed by  thousands  by  every 
change  in  the  weather,  blown  to  destruction  by  the  winds  and  washed 
off  by  the  rains.  They  have  more  enemies  among  predaceous  insects 
than  has  any  other  family,  being  preyed  upon  in  all  stages  by  the  lady- 
birds, which  devour  them  externally,  and  by  Braconids,  which  devour 
them  from  the  inside.  Many  birds  eat  them,  and,  being  utterly 
defenseless,  they  are  beset  by  enemies  on  every  hand.  Why,  then, 
are  they  not  exterminated?  For  the  reason  that  nature  has  made  them 
soj  enormously  prolific  that 
they  are  enabled  to  withstand 
all  the  destructive  forces 
which  are  at  work  against 
them,  and  still  leave  enough 
for  a  new  start,  for  if  but  a 
single  one  is  left,  that  is 
enough  to  stock  the  country 
with  a  new  brood. 

The    aphis    furnishes     the 
most  interesting  study  in  the 

entomological  world.  It  is  a  contradiction  of  all  known  laws 
relation  to  propagation.  The  first  brood,  which  appears  very  early  in 
the  spring,  as  soon  as  there  is  sufficient  plant  life  to  sustain  it,  is  hatched 
from  eggs  which  have  been  previously  deposited  in  the  crevices  of  the 
bark.  These  are  all  females.  They  commence  the  active  work  of  their 
lives  at  once,  and  suck  the  plant  juices  and  grow,  casting  their  skin,  as 
they  become  too  large  for  it,  about  four  times,  by  which  time  they  have 
reached  adult  size  and  are  ready  to  begin  the  second  great  object  of 
their  life — that  of  propagation. 


Woolly  aphis  of  apple  (Schizoneura  lanigeroJ). 
Enlarged. 


Ill 


ENTOMOLOGY  IN  OUTLINE  —  HEMIPTERA.  Dd 

These  females  give  birth  to  new  broods,  all  of  which  are  still  females, 
and  only  females  are  born.  This  peculiar  propagation  is  continued 
throughout  the  summer.  In  the  autumn,  however,  when  the  weather 
grows  colder,  the  last  births  are  both  male  and  female,  and  these  last 
born  females  only  lay  eggs,  which  remain  dormant  until  the  following 
spring,  when  they  hatch  out  females,  and  the  same  process  continues 
without  end. 

Some  naturalists  bold  that  if  the  conditions  are  right  the  aphis  will 
continue  to  give  birth  to  females  ^indefinitely  without  the  presence  of 
males.  Kyber  records  having  had  a  rose  aphis  which  produced  young 
for  four  years,  and  from  his  careful  experiments  it  has  been  asserted 
that  under  certain  circumstances  a  female  aphis  may,  in  the  entire 
absence  of  males,  continue  propagating  to  infinity,  providing  that  the 
necessary  conditions — food  and  heat — for  the  development  of  the  young 
are  not  wanting. 

The  color  of  the  eggs  of  the  aphis,  together  with  their  rarity,  makes 
them  difficult  to  discover.  During  the  months  of  February  and  March, 
when  the  leaf  buds  of  the  rose  begin  to  swell,  the  eggs  of  the  rose  aphis 
may  be  seen  like  grains  of  gunpowder  fixed  within  the  crevices  of  the 
bark.  A  single  insect  hatched  from  one  of  those  shining  black  eggs 
may  be  the  progenitor  of  many  billions  of  young  during  her  lifetime. 
Latrielle,  who  is  an  authority  on  this  branch  of  entomology,  makes  a 
curious  calculation.  He  says  that  one  female  will  produce  young  at  the 
rate  of  about  twenty-five  a  day  during  the  summer  months,  and  one  aphis 
may  be  the  mother  of  the  enormous  number  of  5,904,000,000  during 
the  month  or  six  weeks  of  her  existence.  Tongard  and  Morren,  equally 
good  authorities,  extend  this  number  into  quintillions,  as  being  within 
the  capabilities  of  a  single  mother's  efforts.  Professor  Huxley  makes  a 
calculation  which  affords  an  approximate  idea  of  what  a  quintillion  of 
aphids  might  mean.  Assuming  that  an  aphis  weighs  as  little  as  the 
one-thousandth  part  of  a  grain,  and  that  it  requires  a  man  to  be  very 
stout  to  weigh  more  than  two  million  grains,  he  shows  that  the  tenth 
brood  of  aphids  alone,  without  adding  the  products  of  all  the  genera- 
tions which  precede  the  tenth,  if  all  the  members  survive  the  perils  to 
which  they  are  exposed,  contains  more  ponderable  substance  than  five 
hundred  million  stout  men;  that  is.  more  than  the  whole  population  of 
China  and  the  United  States  combined.  Fortunately  there  are  large 
numbers  of  carnivorous  insects  which  prey  upon  the  aphids  and  pre- 
vent their  inordinate  increase.  The  variations  in  temperature,  winds, 
and  birds  also  have  a  tendency  to  prevent  their  too  rapid  spread. 

We  have  alluded  to  the  fact  that  some  species  of  aphids  are  subter- 
ranean, passing  their  extire  existence  underground.  Among  these  are 
the  Rhizobiina?,  which  are  found  on  the  roots  of  shrubs  and  plants,  and 
may  be  very  injurious.  These  never  come  to  the  surface,  are  wingless, 
and  seem  to  be  cared  for  by  ants,  which  aid  in  their  distribution. 


54  CALIFORNIA  STATE  COMMISSION  OF  HORTICULTURE. 

Another  underground  form  is  the  dreaded  Phylloxera  vastatrix.  This 
pest  is  known  all  over  the  world  and  has  caused  millions  upon  millions 
of  dollars'  loss  by  its  depredations  in  the  vineyards  of  Europe  and 
America.  The  life  history  of  this  pest  is  given  by  Professor  Marlatt,  as 
follows: 

"The  life  cycle  of  the  phylloxera  is  a  complicated  one.  It  occurs  in 
four  forms  in  the  following  order:  The  leaf-gall  form  (gallicola),  the 
root  or  destructive  form  (radicicola),  the  winged  or  colonizing  form, 
and  the  sexual  form.  The  leaf-gall  insect  produces  from  500  to  600 
eggs  for  each  individual,  the  root-inhabiting  insect  not  much  above  100 
eggs,  the  winged  insect  from  3  to  8,  and  the  last  sexed  insect  but  one 
egg.  This  last  is  the  winter  egg,  and  may  be  taken  as  a  starting  point 
of  the  life  cycle.  It  is  laid  in  the  fall  on  the  old  wood,  and  hatches, 
the  spring  following,  into  a  louse,  which  goes  at  once  to  a  young  leaf, 
in  the  upper  surface  of  which  it  inserts  its  beak.  The  sucking  and 
irritation  soon  cause  a  depression  to  form  about  the  young  louse,  which 
grows  into  a  gall  projecting  on  the  lower  side  of  the  leaf.  In  about 
fifteen  days  the  louse  becomes  a  plump,  orange-yellow,  full-grown, 
wingless  female,  and  fills  its  gall  with  small  yellow  eggs,  dying  soon 
after.  The  eggs  hatch  in  about  eight  days  into  young  females  again, 
like  the  parent,  and  migrate  to  all  parts  of  the  vine  to  form  new  galls. 
Six  or  seven  generations  of  these  wingless  females  follow  one  another 
throughout  the  summer,  frequently  completely  studding  the  leaves 
with  galls.  With  the  approach  of  cold  weather  the  young  pass  down 
the  vines  to  the  roots,  where  they  remain  dormant  until  spring.  The 
root  is  then  attacked,  and  a  series  of  subterranean  generations  of  wing- 
less females  is  developed.  The  root  form  differs  but  slightly  from  the 
inhabitant  of  the  leaf  galls,  and  the  swellings  or  excrescences  on  the 
roots  are  analogous  to  those  on  the  leaves. 

"  During  late  summer  and  fall  of  the  second  year  some  of  the  root 
lice  give  rise  to  winged  females,  which  escape  through  cracks  in  the  soil, 
on  warm,  bright  days  and  fly  to  neighboring  vines.  These  winged  lice 
lay  their  eggs  within  a  day  or  two  in  groups  of  two  or  four  in  cracks  in 
the  bark  or  beneath  loose  bark  on  the  old  wood  of  the  vine,  and  die 
soon  after.  The  eggs  are  of  two  sizes,  the  smaller  and  fewer  in  number 
yielding  males  in  nine  or  ten  days,  and  the  larger  the  females  of  the 
only  sexed  generation  developed  in  the  whole  life  round  of  the  insect. 
In  this  last  and  sexed  stage,  the  mouth  parts  of  both  sexes  are  rudi- 
mentary, and  no  food  at  all  is  taken.  The  insect  is  very  minute,  and 
resembles  the  newly  hatched  louse  of  either  the  gall  or  the  root  form. 
The  single  egg  of  the  larva-like  female  after  fertilization  rapidly 
increases  in  size  until  it  fills  the  entire  body  of  the  mother,  and  is  laid 
within  three  or  four  days,  bringing  us  back  to  the  winter  egg,  or  start- 
ing point. 


ENTOMOLOGY  IX  OUTLINE  —  HEMIPTERA.  OO 

••  This  two-year  life  round  is  not  necessary  to  the  existence  of  the 
species,  and  the  root  form  may  and  generally  does  go  on  in  successive 
broods  year  after  year,  as  in  the  case  with  European  vines,  on  the 
leaves  of  which  galls  rarely  occur.  Under  exceptional  circumstances 
all  of  the  different  stages  may  be  passed  through  in  a  single  year.  The 
young  from  leaf  galls  may  also  be  easily  colonized  on  the  roots,  and  it 
is  probable  that  the  passage  of  the  young  from  the  leaves  to  the  roots 
may  take  place  at  any  time  during  the  summer.  The  reverse  of  this 
process,  or  the  migration  of  the  young  directly  from  the  roots  to  the 
leaves,  has  never  been  observed/' 

We  have  dealt  somewhat  extendedly  with  the  aphids,  because  they  are 
among  the  most  serious  pests  of  the  farmer  and  fruit-grower  in  our 
own  State,  as  they  are  elsewhere  in  the  Union. 

Family  Aleyrodidse.  In  the  aleyrodes  we  have  a  connecting  link 
between  the  aphids  and  the  scale  insects.  In  the  early  stages  of  their 
lives,  the  larval  form,  the  aleyrodes  are  true  scale-bugs,  and  very 
strongly  resemble  certain  species  of  Lecaniums.  For  a  long  time,  mem- 
bers of  this  family  were  classed 
with  the  Coccids,  but  owing  to  very 
marked  differences  in  the  mature 
insects  were  erected  into  a  separate 
family.  They  are  very  small  in- 
sects, and  in  the  larval  form  are 
sometimes  quite  pretty,  having  a 
dark  center  and  being  surrounded 
by  a  fringe  of  white,  waxy  fila- 
ments. In  the  mature  stage,  both 
sexes  are  winged,  herein  differing 
from  the  Coccida?,  in  which  only 
the  male  acquires  wings.  In  this 

stage  they  are  small,  white,  four-winged  flies,  very  strongly  resembling 
minute  moths.  The  wings  and  bodies  are  covered  with  a  whitish  pow- 
der, resembling  flour.  We  have  several  species  of  this  family  in  Cali- 
fornia, and  they  may  be  found  quite  commonly  on  the  under  side  of 
the  leaves  of  fuchsias,  nettles,  iris,  and  other  plants.  Where  very  num- 
erous, they  fly  off  in  a  white  cloud  like  a  cloud  of  dust  when  disturbed. 
None  of  our  native  species  are  especially  injurious,  but  in  Florida 
and  other  of  the  Southern  states  the  Aleyrodes  ritri  (the  white  fly), 
a  species  found  upon  citrus  fruits,  has  proven  a  very  destructive  and 
dangerous  pest  and  one  that  it  has  not  been  found  possible  to  control. 

Family  Coeeidse  (Scale-bugs,  Mealy-bugs,  etc.).  We  now  come  to  a 
family  more  widely  known,  and,  in  California,  more  generally  destruc- 
tive than  any  other  of  the  insect  tribe.  It  is  a  very  large  family, 


FIG.  54.    White.flies(.4i«/rode*sp.).    Natural 

size  and  riilurjred. 


56  CALIFORNIA  STATE  COMMISSION  OF  HORTICULTURE. 

including  something  over  fifteen  hundred  epecies,  not  all  of  which,  how- 
ever, are  found  in  California. 

The  family  Coccidse  is  divided  into  nine  subfamilies,  each  having  its 
peculiarities  of  form  and  habits,  which  are  set  forth  as  follows: 

Subfamily  Monophlebinse.  Of  this  subfamily,  which  comprises  ten 
genera,  we  have  a  good  representative  in  leery  a  purchasi  (the  cottony- 
cushion  scale),  which  is  well  known  to  almost  every  horticulturist  in 
California.  The  general  characteristics  are:  Males  with  compound 
eyes.  Females  with  definite  hairy  anal  ring.  The  insects  are  usually 
covered  by  a  cottony  matter  of  several  shades,  of  color  and  with  a 
secretion  of  still  longer  filaments.  Skin  with  rounded  spinnerets  and 
with  long,  scattered  hairs.  The  lateral  lobes  of  the  extremity  of  the 
abdomen  are  fitted  with  a  series  of  long,  interlaced  bristles. 

Subfamily  Margarodinse.  This  subfamily  has  been  erected  to  ac- 
commodate a  single  genus — Margarodies — comprising  about  ten  species. 
This  subfamily  is  not  represented  in  California.  One  very  pretty 
species  is  found  infesting  roots  in  South  Africa  and  is  bead-shaped. 
They  are  very  brilliant  in  color,  being  somewhat  of  a  metallic  green, 
and  are  collected  by  the  natives,  strung  on  stout  thread  and  worn  as 
ornaments. 

Subfamily  Ortheziinse.  Under  this  subfamily  are  included  three 
genera,  of  which  the  genus  Orthezia  is  the  most  important  and  the  only 
one  represented  in  California.  The  female  presents  the  following 
characters:  Eyes  simple,  anal  ring  with  hairs.  Body  more  or  less  cov- 
ered with  cereous  matter  arranged  in  compact  symmetrical  plates.  The 
eggs  are  carried  in  an  elongated  ovisac,  which  projects  behind  the  body 
until  they  hatch.  Insect  active  throughout  entire  life.  Legs  long,  with 
fine  hairs,  one  claw,  and  no  digitules.  Two  or  more  long,  slender, 
snow-white  filaments  project  from  near  the  posterior  end.  Color 
usually  white. 

Subfamily  Phenaeoleaehiinse.  This  subfamily  was  erected  to  accom- 
modate a  single  genus — Phenacoleachia — and  is  represented  by  a  single 
species,  which  occurs  in  New  Zealand  on  Cupressus  sp. 

Subfamily  Conehaspinse.  These  are  insects  with  a  separate  covering 
scale,  which  is  formed  entirely  of  secretionary  matter,  not  using  the 
cast  skins  (exuviae)  in  forming  the  covering  scale.  Adult  females 
retain  limbs  and  antennae.  A  distinguishing  feature  of  this  subfamily 
is  to  be  found  in  the  mouth  parts,  as  the  lower  part  of  the  mouth 
(mentum)  is  composed  of  two  parts,  and  is  grooved  out  to  accommo- 
date the  sucking  tube  of  the  insect.  This  subfamily  contains  but  a 
single  genus — Conchaspis — of  which  only  four  species  have  been 
recorded,  none  of  which  occur  in  California. 


ENTOMOLOGY  IN  OUTLINE  — HEMIPTEK  A.  Ol 

Subfamily  Daetylopiinse.  This  subfamily  includes  a  large  number 
of  genera,  something  like  fifty-two,  of  which  thirteen  occur  in  Cali- 
fornia. Among  those  found  in  this  State  are  the  following:  Asterole- 
canium,  Pollinia,  Kermes,  Nidularia,  Gossyparia,  Eriococcus, 
Dactylopius,  Ceroputo,  Pseudococcus,  Erium,  Ripersia,  and  Antonina. 
The  most  important  of  these  is  the  Pseudococcus  (mealy-bugs).  The 
following  may  be  of  assistance  in  placing  the  species  in  their  proper 
place:  Abdominal  extremity  not  cleft,  usually  with  a  pair  of  more  or 
less  prominent  rounded  tubercles,  each  bearing  a  long  seta.  No  hinged 
plates  above  anal  orifice.  Larva  with  abdominal  lobes.  Female  not 
secreting  a  waxy  scale. 

Subfamily  Taehardiinse.  These  insects  are  inclosed  in  a  resinous 
cell,  with  three  orifices.  Adult  female  without  legs,  with  the  terminal 
segments  produced  into  a  tail-like  organ,  with  the  anal  orifice  at  the 
extremity,  which  is  surrounded  by  a  broken  hairy  ring.  A  spine-like 
organ  above  the  base  of  the  caudal  extension.  This  subfamily  includes 
but  two  genera,  comprising  about  twenty-three  species,  and  is  not  rep- 
resented in  California. 

Subfamily  Coeeinae.  This  is  another  large  subfamily,  embracing 
some  forty-eight  genera,  ten  of  which  are  represented  in  California, 
viz.:  Pulvinaria,  Exseretopus,  Ceroplastes,  Vinsonia,  Eucalymanatus, 
Coccus,  Eulecanium,  Saissetia,  Physokermes,  and  Aclerda.  The  main 
characters  of  the  Coccina?  are  as  follows:  Females  keeping  the  form  of 
the  body,  with  segments  distinct  until  the  end,  and  also  retaining  the 
power  of  moving  under  certain  circumstances  while  young.  Either 
naked  or  simply  covered  with  waxy  filamentary  material.  Most  of  the 
females,  after  impregnation,  take  on  a  different  form  and  become  fixed 
to  the  host  plant,  and,  once  fixed,  remain  so  for  the  rest  of  their  lives. 
Under  this  subfamily  are  grouped  some  of  the  more  destructive  forms 
with  which  the  fruit-growers  of  California  have  to  contend.  The 
principal  ones  being  Saissetia  oletv  (black  scale),  Pulvinaria  innumer- 
abilis  (cottony  maple  scale),  and  Coccus  hesperidum  (soft  orange  scale), 
although  this  species  is  now  not  considered  a  pest. 

Subfamily  Diaspinse.  These  insects  have  a  separate  covering-scale 
composed  partly  of  secretionary  matter  and  partly  of  the  exuviae,  which 
are  the  discarded  skins  shed  at  the  periodical  molts  of  the  insect. 
Adult  female  without  limbs.  The  form  of  the  scales  comprising  this 
family  are  usually  circular,  varying  to  oblong.  The  eggs  are  deposited 
beneath  the  parent  scale.  Under  this  subfamily  occur  some  thirty-five 
genera,  among  which  are  to  be  found  many  of  the  most  destructive 
species  in  our  State.  The  principal  ones  are  Chionaspis,  Diaspis, 
Aulacaspis,  Hemichionaspis,  Fiorinia,  Aspidiotus,  Chrysomphalus, 
Pseudaonidia,  Lepidosaphes,  and  Parlatoria. 


58  CALIFORNIA  STATE  COMMISSION  OF  HORTICULTURE. 

In  treating  of  the  different  species  of  the  scale-bug  family,  it  will  be 
well  to  call  attention  to  the  new  classification.  Our  Horticultural  Com- 
missioners have  struggled  hard,  in  most  cases,  to  inform  themselves  in 
regard  to  scale  pests  in  California,  and  have  learned  to  know  them  by 
their  old  names.  Now,  these  names  have  been  largely  changed,  the 
knowledge  acquired  by  our  commissioners  is  turned  topsy-turvy,  and 
they  will  have  to  learn  the  names  of  their  old  acquaintances  over 
again,  or  fail  to  recognize  them  when  they  appear  in  print.  Following 
is  appended  a  list  of  the  changes  which  have  been  made  in  the  nomen- 
clature of  the  more  common  of  our  California  scales. 

Common  Name.  New  Name.  Old  Name. 

Mealy-Bug.  Pseudococcus.  Dactylopius. 

Black  Scale.  Saissetia  olese.  Lecanium  olese. 

Soft  Brown  Scale.  Coccus  hesperidum.  Lecanium  hesperidum. 

Hemispherical  Scale.  Saissetia  hemispherica.  Lecanium  hemisphericum. 

Apricot  Scale.  Eulecanium  armeniacum.  Lecanium  armeniacum. 

Frosted  Scale  (Prune  Scale).    Eulecanium  pruinosum.  Lecanium  pruinosum. 

Red  Scale.  Chrysomphalus  aurantii.  Aspidiotus  aurantii. 

Yellow  Scale.  Chrysomphalus  citrinus.  Aspidiotus  citrinus. 

Oleander  Scale.  Aspidiotus  hederse.  Aspidiotus  nerii. 

Purple  Scale.  Lepidosaphes  beckii.  Mytilaspis  citricola. 

Long  Scale.  Lepidosaphes  gloverii.  Mytilaspis  gloverii. 

Rose  Scale.  Aulacaspis  rosse.  Diaspis  rosre. 

These  are  a  few  of  the  changes  that  have  been  made  in  the  nomen- 
clature of  this  family,  and  the  list  presented  above  will  aid  our  com- 
missioners and  those  who  learned  under  the  old  school  to  recognize 
their  old  friends  under  their  new  names. 

In  many  members  of  this  family  there  seems  to  be  a  sort  of  retro- 
gression, and  they  go  from  bad  to  worse,  from  the  time  they  are  hatched 
out  until  they  die.  When  first  hatched  they  are  perfectly  formed 
insects,  having  the  required  six  legs,  well-formed  antennae,  eyes,  and 
mouth  parts.  They  are  lively  in  their  motions  and  get  around  at  a 
fairly  good  rate.  In  a  short  time,  however,  they  settle  down  in  a  chosen 
place,  on  some  form  of  vegetable,  insert  their  beak  and  suck.  Having 
no  further  use  for  legs  and  other  organs  needed  in  active  life,  they 
gradually  lose  them,  molting  in  the  meantime,  and  forming  the  coating 
which  we  know  as  a  scale.  In  the  last  stage,  however,  there  is  a  differ- 
ence between  the  two  sexes,  for  while  the  female  never  changes  her 
position,  being  converted  as  it  were  into  a  mass  of  eggs  and  young  at 
the  end  of  her  life,  the  male  emerges  from  the  scale  form  a  perfect 
insect;  usually  a  very  pretty  little  creature,  with  a  full  complement  of 
feet  and  wings,  and  all  other  organs  except  mouth  parts.  He  can  no 
longer  eat,  and  is  therefore  not  to  be  feared.  His  mouth  parts  disap- 
pear and  in  their  places  he  acquires  a  new  pair  of  eyes.  This  we 
presume  is  the  better  to  enable  him  to  find  the  female,  for  this  is  now 
all  that  is  left  in  life  for  him,  and  he  soon  passes  away. 


ENTOMOLOGY  IX  OUTLINE— NEUROPTER A.  59 

This  description  will  hardly  apply  to  members  of  several  of  the  sub- 
families, in  which  both  sexes  retain  some  powers  of  locomotion  through 
life  and  do  not  become  fixed,  nor  form  a  scale.  A  peculiarity  of  this 
family.'  too,  is  that  while  they  belong  to  the  four-winged  insects,  the 
perfect  males  have  but  one  pair  of  wings,  a  pair  of  small  hooks,  known 
as  halteres  or  poisers,  taking  the  place  of  the  other  pair,  and,  unlike 
other  members  of  this  order,  the  males  undergo  a  complete  meta- 
morphosis. 

As  the  Coccida?  are  treated  of  in  extenso  in  another  publication 
issued  by  the  Commission  of  Horticulture,  under  the  title  of  "The 
Coccida3  of  California,"  we  will  dismiss  this  family  here,  and  refer  our 
readers  thereto  for  a  full  account  of  them. 


Order  NEUROPTERA. 

(The  Nerve-winged  Insects.) 

In  the  old  classification,  this  order  includecl  all  insects  with  four  more 
or  less  transparent  wings,  and  these  veined  or  netted.  The  lace- winged 
fly  and  the  dragon-fly  were  marked  types  of  the  order.  In  all  members 
the  mouth  parts  are  formed  for  biting.  Aside  from  the  winged  resem- 
blance, however,  there  were  such  marked  differences  in  the  diverse  mem- 
bers of  this  order  that  several  new  orders  have  been  constructed  from 
it,  and  it  is  divided  into  from  two  to  five  minor  orders,  according  to  the 
importance  attached  by  authorities  to  the  development  of  different 
organs,  and  especially  in  relation  to  different  methods  of  transforma- 
tion. This  order,  or  group  of  orders,  is  not  of  great  importance  to  us, 
for  aside  from  some  beneficial  insects  which  we  find  in  it,  the  greater 
portion  are  neither  beneficial  nor  injurious:  we  may  therefore  consider 
its  members  together  under  the  old  style. 

In  this  order  both  pairs  of  wings  are  usually  of  the  same  size  and  of 
a  similar  membranous  texture,  and  traversed  with  nervures,  which  are 
usually  united  by  a  number  of  smaller  ones,  so  that  the  wings  present 
a  net-like  appearance.  In  some  of  the  members  the  metamorphosis  is 
complete  and  in  others  incomplete,  and  upon  this  fact  the  order  has 
been  divided.  The  Neuroptera  proper  are  divided  into  seven  families: 
Mantispidse,  Raphidiidse,  Sialidae,  Coniopterygidse,  Myrmeleonidse, 
Hemerobiida?,  and  Chrysopida?. 

The  family  Mantispidse  is  so  named  from  the  fact  that  the  insects 
strongly  resemble  the  praying  mantis  in  the  order  Hemiptera.  They 
are  much  smaller  insects,  however,  and  their  possession  of  four  strongly 
marked  membranous  wings  gives  them  a  place  in  the  order  under  dis- 
cussion. They  have  strong,  grasping  forelegs  and  are  predaceous, 
living  upon  other  insects.  Only  one  member  of  this  family  is  known  in 
California,  Symphasis  sign  at  a,  but  it  is  not  frequently  met  with. 


60  CALIFORNIA  STATE   COMMISSION  OF  HORTICULTURE. 

The  family  Raphidiidse  is  represented  in  California  by  an  insect 
about  half  an  inch  in  length,  with  a  peculiarly  shaped  head  and  neck 
which  protrude  far  in  advance  of  the  wings.  It  is  a  predaceous  insect, 
lives  largely  on  the  larvae  of  the  codling-moth,  and  is  one  of  the  best  of 
the  native  parasites  of  this  pest.  It  is  not  a  common  insect,  but  is 
sometimes  found  under  the  bark  of  trees,  where  it  takes  refuge. 

The  family  Coniopterygidse  comprises  a  few  rare  insects  which  have 
no  economic  importance,  and  are  of  interest  only  to  the  systematist. 

The  family  Sialidse  includes  the  Dobson  fly,  which,  in  its  larval  form, 
serves  as  a  bait  for  anglers.  In  this  stage  it  is  an  aquatic  insect,  living 
upon  other  water  insects.  It  has  no  economic  value. 

The  family  Myrmeleonidse  are  the  doodle-bugs,  or  ant-lions.  They 
have  the  peculiar  habit  of  setting  a  trap  for  their  prey,  usually  in  the 
path  of  the  ants,  and  this  they  do  by  digging  a  pit  in  the  shifting  sand. 
When  an  ant  gets  over  the  edge  of  this  pit  he  rolls  to  the  bottom,  where 
the  doodle-bug  grasps  him  in  his  jaws  and  sucks  out  the  juices.  In 
their  matured  form  they  strongly  resemble  dragon-flies. 

The  family  Hemerobiidae  strongly  resembles  the  lace-winged  flies  in 
appearance,  but  much  larger  and  differently  colored,  being  usually 
dark  brown.  They  are  predaceous,  and,  so  far,  beneficial. 

The  family  Chrysopidse  includes  the  lace-winged  flies,  so  well  known 
to  our  orchardists.  In  their  larval  form  they  are  commonly  known  as 
aphis-lions,  from  the  fact  that  they  are  largely  predaceous  on  aphids. 
The  mature  insect  is  a  very  pretty  creature,  with  its  delicate  form, 
gauzy  wings,  and  brilliant,  prominent  golden  eyes.  Upon  being  dis- 


FIG.  55.    Lace-winged  fly. 

turbed  they  emit  a  disagreeable  fetid  odor.  Their  eggs  are  white,  are 
supported  on  long  stalks,  and  are  usually  deposited  on  plants  infested 
with  aphids.  The  larvae  are  active  and  extremely  voracious.  There 
are  two  or  more  broods  during  the  summer,  and  the  last  brood  winters 
in  the  pupa  state  protected  by  a  compact,  round,  whitish  cocoon. 

There  has  been  much  confusion  among  entomologists  in  regard  to  the 
insects  comprising  this  order,  owing  to  the  diversity  of  character  of 
many  of  the  insects  classified  under  it  originally,  and  this  has  resulted 


ENTOMOLOGY  IN  OUTLINE  —  NEUROPTERA.  61 

in  splitting  it  up  into  several  minor  orders,  some  of  which  are  repre- 
sented by  a  single  family.  Some  authorities  divide  it  into  two  sub- 
orders, the  true  Neuroptera  and  the  Pseudo-neuroptera.  In  the  former 
the  metamorphosis  is  complete,  and  in  the  latter  it  is  incomplete.  In 
this  classification  of  Neuroptera  and  Pseudo-neuroptera,  the  insects 
with  incomplete  metamorphosis  are  separated  into  Ephemeroptera,  or 
mayflies;  Odonata,  or  dragon-flies;  Plectoptera,  or  stone-flies;  Platyptera, 
the  white  ants,  book-lice,  and  bird-lice.  Comstock,  however,  erects 
separate  orders  for  these,  and  does  not  recognize  the  Pseudo-neuroptera. 
As  few  of  these  are  of  great  economic  importance,  and  as  this  is  not  a 
scientific  treatise,  we  give  the  minor  orders  place  under  the  general  title 
of  Neuroptera. 

Order  Meeoptera  includes  but  one  family,  the  scorpion-flies,  so-called 
because  the  last  abdominal  segment  has  a  strong  resemblance  to  the 
sting  of  the  scorpion.  It  is  not  a  sting,  however,  and  contains  only  a 
set  of  grasping  organs.  These  insects  are  of  no  economic  importance. 

Order  Triehoptera,  the  caddice  flies,  in  their  larval  stage,  are  found 
in  streams  and  have  the  peculiarity  of  constructing  for  themselves 
shelters  of  particles  of  wood,  gravel,  and  other  substances.  The  larvse 
remain  in  these  structures,  the  head  alone  protruding,  and  are  thus  safe 
from  outside  foes.  The  material  of  which  these  structures  are  joined 
together  is  a  silk  spun  by  the  worm,  and  the  inside  of  the  tubes  is 
generally  lined  with  the  same  substance.  Another  peculiarity  of  these 
insects  is  that  under  water  they  construct  a  web  very  similar  to  that  of 
the  spider  on  the  surface. 

Order  Ephemerida  includes  the  mayflies,  which  are  very  delicate 
insects  that  appear  in  enormous  numbers  on  summer  evenings  on  the 
margins  of  quiet  streams  and  lakes.  The  mayfly  is  an  aquatic  insect, 
and  spends  its  entire  larval  life  in  the  water.  In  its  perfect  form  it  is 
a  beautiful  sprite-like  insect,  without  mouth  parts,  its  only  object  in 
life  being  to  lay  the  eggs  which  are  to  produce  a  new  generation.  This 
is  accomplished  in  a  few  hours  and  the  insect  passes  away.  They  have 
no  economic  value.  The  metamorphosis  is  incomplete. 

Order  Odonata  (Dragon-flies).  Members  of  this  order  are  easily 
recognized  and  are  well  known.  They  are,  in  their  larval  form, 
aquatic,  and  have  an  incomplete  metamorphosis.  They  may  be  classed 
as  beneficial,  as  they  live  almost  wholly  on  mosquitoes  in  both  their 
larval  and  mature  stages,  and  are  probably  one  of  nature's  most  effect- 
ive methods  of  keeping  down  these  troublesome  pests.  Unfortunately, 
this  insect  has  been  credited  with  malign  powers,  and  ignorant  people 
regard  it  as  a  dangerous  insect.  It  is  at  once  one  of  the  most  graceful. 


62 


CALIFORNIA  STATE  COMMISSION  OP  HORTICULTURE. 


beautiful,  useful,  and  harmless  of  the  insect  tribe.  It  has  no  sting  and 
no  means  of  defense,  except  in  its  rapid  flight,  and  may  be  handled 
with  impunity  by  collectors.  Aside  from  their  work  on  mosquitoes, 
members  of  this  order  have  no  interest  to  our  orchardists. 


FIG.  56.    Dragon-fly.    Natural  size. 

Order  Pleeoptera  (Stone-flies).  These  are  insects  having  an  incom- 
plete metamorphosis,  and  which  breed  in  great  numbers  in  streams. 
They  are  known  as  stone-flies  from  the  fact  that  they  take  refuge  under 
stones  in  the  streams,  and  are  a  favorite  bait  with  anglers.  Fish  are 
very  fond  of  them,  but  aside  from  this  they  are  of  no  economic  impor- 
tance. 

Order  Isoptera  includes  the  so-called  white  ants,  or  termites,  which, 
by  the  way,  are  not  ants  at  all,  nor  even  remotely  connected  with  them. 
Termites  are  very  common  insects  in  California,  where  they  will  be 


FIG.  57.  Various  forms  of  Termes  lucifugus.  A,  adult  worker;  B,  soldier;  C,  perfect 
winged  insect;  D,  perfect  insect  after  shedding  the  wings;  E,  young  comple- 
mentary queen;  F,  older  complementary  queen.  Enlarged.  (After  Grassi  and 
Sandias.) 

found  working  usually  on  decaying  wood, but  sometimes  attacking  grow- 
ing trees  just  beneath  the  surface  of  the  ground.  They  are  not,  how- 
ever, seriously  harmful,  and  while  some  damage  is  reported  from  their 
attacks,  this  is  not  common.  This  order  comprises  some  of  the  most 
remarkable  and  interesting  forms  of  insect  life,  and  it  may  be  well  to 


ENTOMOLOGY  IN  OUTLINE— NEUROPTER A.  63 

deal  more  extensively  with  it.  There  are  seven  species  found  in 
the  United  States,  of  which  four  are  confined  to  the  Pacific  Coast.  None 
of  these  are  of  large  size,  usually  being  from  one  sixth  to  one  fourth  of 
an  inch  long.  In  the  tropics,  however,  they  attain  a  much  larger  size, 
and  are  among  the  most  destructive  of  insects,  in  some  cases  being  so 
destructive  to  wood  that  this  material  can  be  used  very  sparingly,  if  at 
all,  in  buildings.  Comstock  gives  the  following  account  of  the  life  of 
the  termites: 

"A  remarkable  thing  about  the  white  ants  is  the  way  they  are 
divided  into  classes,  each  class  fitted  to  do  a  certain  work  for  the  colony. 
First,  there  is  the  class  of  workers,  which  is  constituted  of  both  sexes ; 
they  are  wingless  and  of  a  dirty-white  color,  and  while  they  resemble 
true  ants  somewhat,  their  waists  are  thicker.  Their  business  is  to 
bring  food  for  everybody,  feed  and  bring  up  -the  young  termites,  and 
build  nests.  Second,  there  is  the  class  called  soldiers ;  these,  too,  are 
of  both  sexes,  and  wingless,  and  look  somewhat  like  the  workers,  only 
their  heads  are  tremendous  in  size,  being  often  nearly  as  long  as  the 
rest  of  the  body,  and  their  jaws  are  large  and  powerful.  Third,  is  the 
royal  class,  called  kings  and  queens.  It  would  have  been  better  to  have 
called  them  fathers  arid  mothers,  as  they  are  the  parents  of  the  colony, 
and  do  not  rule  it.  This  class  when  grown  have  wings,  which  lie  flat 
upon  the  back  when  at  rest,  and  may  be  twice  as  long  as  the  body.  In 
May  or  June  in  our  common  species  this  class  swarms  forth  from  all 
the  nests  of  the  neighborhood.  After  a  flight  of  some  distance  the 
wings  are  shed,  and  a  king  chooses  some  queen  near  him  and  proposes 
that  they  start  a  kingdom  of  their  own.  But  like  mortal  kings  and 
queens  they  can  not  reign  unless  a  kingdom  is  found  for  them,  and  so 
millions  of  these  royal  pairs  die  because  they  have  no  subjects.  But 
sometimes  a  fortunate  couple  is  discovered  by  some  termite  workers, 
who  at  once  take  possession  of  the  wanderers  and  provide  them  with 
food  and  with  shelter  in  the  shape  of  a  large  circular  shallow  cell.  In  this 
they  are  really  imprisoned,  but  are  well  cared  for.  Soon  the  queen 
or  mother  begins  to  develop  eggs,  and  her  body  grows  enormously. 
Finally,  it  is  nothing  but  a  huge  sac  filled  with  eggs,  looking  more  like 
a  potato  than  anything  else,  and  is  sometimes  six  or  seven  inches  long. 
Of  course,  the  poor  queen  can  not  move  herself  in  the  least,  and  if  she 
were  not  fed  would  soon  starve  ;  but  her  king  remains  devoted  to  her, 
and  her  ladies  and  gentlemen  in  waiting  do  their  best  to  make  her  com- 
fortable ;  they  carry  away  the  eggs  to  other  chambers  as  soon  as  they 
are  laid,  then  care  for  the  eggs,  and  feed  the  little  ones  when  they  are 
hatched.  The  young  termites  are  active,  and  resemble  the  adult  in 
form.  If  a  nest  becomes  queenless,  and  the  workers  are  unable  to  pro- 
cure a  queen,  there  are  developed  in  the  nest  wingless  sexual  individ- 
uals, which  are  termed  complemental  males  and  females.  But  as  each 


CALIFORNIA  STATE  COMMISSION  OF  HORTICULTURE. 


complemental  female  lays  only  a  few  eggs,  it  requires  several  to  take 
the  place  of  a  real  queen. 

"All  white  ants  are  miners,  and  avoid  the  light.  They  build  covered 
ways  wherever  they  wish  to  go.  In  hot  countries  they  are  a  terrible 
pest,  as  they  feed  upon  wood,  and  actually  destroy  buildings  and  furni- 
ture and  libraries.  They  leave  merely  the  outside  portion  of  what  they 
feed  upon;  and  they  have  been  known  to  enter  a  table  through  the 
bottom  of  the  legs  and  to  eat  all  the  inner  portions  so  that  a  slight 
weight  crushed  it  to  the  floor.  In  Florida  they  do  damage  to  orange 
and  other  trees  by  girdling  them  below  the  surface  of  the  ground." 

Order  Corpodentia  (Book-lice,  etc.).  These  are  tiny  creatures,  some- 
what resembling  the  termites  in  appearance,  only  one  family  of  which, 
the  Psocids,  are  found  in  the  United  States.  They  are  general  scaven- 
gers and  receive  their  common  name  of  book-lice  from  the  fact  that 
they  are  sometimes  found  in  libraries,  attacking  old  and  unused  books. 
They  are  found  in  great  numbers  in  many  of  our  orchards,  where  they 
congregate  in  colonies.  They  lay  their  eggs  in  heaps  on  leaves  and 
branches,  and  cover  them  with  a  web,  giving  vegetation  a  dirty  appear- 
ance, as  the  dust  finds  lodgment  on  these  webs.  The  dry  climate  of 
California  is  especially  favorable  to  their  propagation,  but,  aside  from 
the  fact  that  they  give  our  trees  a  dirty  appearance,  they  are  of  no 
importance  to  us  from  an  economic  standpoint. 

Order  Malophaga.  This  order  has  been  erected  for  the  bird-lice. 
We  have  alluded  to  these  insects  before,  and  little  more  need  be  said  of 
them.  They  infest  birds  and  sometimes  are  also  found  on  animals, 

being  known  by  the  name  "  wool- 
eaters,"  which  was  given  them  be- 
cause some  species  are  found  on 
sheep  and  goats.  They  are  fur- 
nished with  rmandibulate  jaws, 
and  are,  therefore,  biting  and  not 
sucking  insects.  In  this  they  differ 
from  the  true  lice,  which  are  suck- 


ers.    Their 
complete. 


metamorphosis    is 


in- 


FIG.  58.     Pear-thrips  (Euthrips  pyri). 
enlarged. 


Order  Physopoda  (Thrips). 
This  is  a  small  order  of  very  small 
Greatly  insects  which  has  had  a  deal  of 
trouble  in  getting  located.  Ento- 
mologists have  located  it  in  the  Hemiptera,  the  Orthoptera,  and  the 
Neuroptera.  Finally  a  "Thysanoptera"  was  created  to  take  care  of  it, 
and  now  it  has  come  to  be  known  as  Physopoda.  Whatever  the  name 


ENTOMOLOGY  IN  OUTLINE— LEPIDOPTER A.  65 

of  this  group,  its  members  while  exceedingly  minute  are  also  exceedingly 
destructive.  The  various  species  in  this  order  are  distinctly  different 
from  those  belonging  to  any  other  order,  which  accounts  for  the  trouble 
of  locating  them  when  there  were  only  the  seven  orders  in  which  to 
place  all  insects,  and  the  necessity  at  last  of  erecting  an  order  for  them. 
These  insects  abound  in  flowers  and  flowering  plants  and  can  be 
found  in  great  quantities  in  many  blossoms.  In  some  sections  they 
infest  pear,  orange,  and  other  fruit  trees,  and  do  much  damage  by 
injuring  the  blossoms,  as  they  bite  into  the  essential  organs  and  prevent 
the  fruit  blooms  from  fertilizing  and  the  fruit  from  setting.  In  the 
vineyards  of  this  State  one  of  the  leaf-hoppers  is  called  a  thrips,  but 
this  is  a  misnomer,  as  the  insect  found  in  the  vineyard  is  a  hopper,  and 
belongs  to  the  Homoptera. 


Order  LEPIDOPTERA. 

(Butterflies  and  Moths.) 

A  description  of  the  members  of  this  order  is  hardly  necessary,  as  it 
is  the  best  known  of  all  the  insect  tribe.  The  butterflies  are  especially 
attractive  to  the  non-scientific  classes,  as  they  comprise  the  most 
attractive  and  showy  of  all  insects.  We  find  them  of  all  colors  and  all 
combinations  of  color,  and  of  such  varied  forms  that  one  becomes 
bewildered  with  their  myriad  beauties.  They  have  been  aptly  termed 
the  flowers  of  the  insect  world,  and,  certainly,  in  their  varied  liues  and 
forms,  they  more  resemble  flowers  than  animals.  Their  name,  Lepidop- 
tera,  is  composed  of  two  Greek  words,  lepis,  a  scale,  and  pteron,  a  wing", 
and  means  scaly  wings,  from  the  fact  that  the  wings,  in  insects  belonging 
to  this  order,  are  covered  with  minute  scales. 

As  a  rule,  it  is  not  difficult  to  recognize  a  member  of  this  order,  for 
while  the  species  are  very  numerous,  there  are  conspicuous  general 
characteristics  in  shape,  wing  formation,  etc.,  which  are  so  strongly 
marked  as  to  make  them  plainly  recognizable  even  to  the  tyro.  There 
are,  however,  some  minor  exceptions  to  this  statement  in  the  wingless 
forms,  usually  females,  as  the  tussock-moth,  the  cankerworm,  etc.,  and 
in  the  clear-winged  moths,  which  so  nearly  resemble  wasps  that  the 
beginner  in  entomology  might  be  pardoned  for  mistaking  them. 

The  order  is  again  divided  into  two  well-defined  groups  or  suborders: 
the  moths,  or  Heterocera,  meaning  variable  horns,  from  the  great  variety 
of  forms  shown  in  their  antennae,  and  the  butterflies,  or  Rhopalocera, 
or  club-horns,  in  allusion  to  the  form  of  their  antennae.  The  butterflies 
are  all  diurnal,  or  day-fliers,  while  the  greater  part  of  the  moths  are 
nocturnal,  or  night-fliers.  Some  moths  fly  in  the  daylight  and  many 
are  on  the  wing  during  the  twilight  hours,  between  sundown  and  dark, 
5— E 


66  CALIFORNIA  STATE  COMMISSION  OF  HORTICULTURE. 

but  by  far  the  greater  part  of  the  members  of  this  family  are  night- 
fliers. 

Referring  again  to  the  antennae,  there  is  always  a  distinguishing 
feature  here  by  which  we  can  decide  to  which  class  either  of  these 
insects  belongs,  for  while  moths  and  butterflies,  in  some  of  their  forms, 
so  nearly  approach  each  other  that  it  is  difficult  to  tell  where  to  place 
them,  the  antennae  of  the  butterfly  invariably  end  in  a  little  club  or 
knob,  hence  the  name.  The  antennae  are  always  filiform,  or  thread- 
like, varying  in  thickness ;  but  at  the  end  there  will  be  a  knob,  which  is 
sometimes  prominent,  sometimes  obscure,  and  varies  in  form  in  different 
species,  but  it  is  always  present.  With  the  moths,  the  antennae  always 
end  in  a  point.  In  this  group,  there  is  a  great  variation  in  the  form  of 
the  antennae;  they  are  feathered  or  branched,  or  filiform,  sometimes 
very  simple  and  sometimes  very  elaborate,  but  they  invariably  terminate 
in  a  point. 

While,  in  their  perfect  state,  this  order  is  the  most  attractive  of  all 
the  insect  tribe,  they  are,  in  their  larval  stage,  the  most  destructive  of 
any.  With  the  exception  of  the  silkworm,  whose  products  we  have 
turned  to  our  use,  and  a  few  minor  species  which  are  predatory,  we  may 
say  that  the  whole  order  is  destructive.  They  are  vegetable  feeders, 
and,  in  the  form  of  caterpillars,  often  do  enormous  damage.  Codling- 
moths,  armyworms,  cutworms,  cankerworms,  gypsy-moths,  the  brown- 
tail  moths,  and  others  of  this  kind,  are  too  well  known  to  our 
orchardists,  while  the  housewife  is  troubled  out  of  her  life  by  the 
clothes-moth.  They  are  a  pest  in  everything,  and  do  more  damage 
than  any  of  the  other  insect  orders. 

Another  distinguishing  feature  is  that,  when  at  rest,  the  butterflies 
fold  their  wings  perpendicularly  over  their  backs,  while  the  moths  fold 
theirs  horizontally.  In  the  latter,  the  wings  lie  flat  on  the  back,  or  are 
folded  over  it  roof-like.  There  is  one  family  of  butterflies,  commonly 
known  as  skippers,  which  seems  to  connect  the  two  branches,  and  in 
these  one  pair  of  wings  are  folded,  as  in  the  butterflies,  and  the  other 
lie  flat,  as  in  the  moths. 

The  butterflies  have  well-marked  peculiarities  which  separate  them 
into  natural  groups,  based  on  the  character  of  the  feet  and  the  position 
of  the  antennae.  In  the  true  butterflies,  the  head  is  very  narrow,  and 
the  feelers  are  set  close  together  on  the  top.  The  club  on  the  antennae 
is  very  prominent  and  well  defined.  In  the  skippers,  which  we  have 
stated  seem  to  form  a  connection  between  the  two  suborders,  the  head 
is  much  broader,  the  bodies  stouter,  and  the  antennae,  while  ending  in 
a  club,  are  recurved  and  pointed,  and  they  are  widely  separated  and  set 
close  to  the  eyes. 

It  has  been  previously  stated  that  all  insects  have  six  feet,  from 
whence  we  have  the  name  Hexapoda,  applied  to  this  section  of  the 


KXTOMOLOGY  IX   OUTLINE  —  LEPIDOPTERA.  67 

insect  world.  In  the  case  of  some  of  the  butterflies,  it  would  seem  at 
first  glance  that  an  exception  was  had  to  this  rule.  In  many  of  them 
the  fore  legs  and  feet  are  aborted,  and  often  not  plainly  visible.  They 
are  always  present,  however,  even  if  indistinct.  In  these,  the  tibia  or 
foot  is  represented  by  a  brush,  and  these  brush-footed  butterflies  are 
divided  into  two  families:  the  Nymphalidse,  containing  the  moderate- 
sized  and  large  species,  and  the  Lycsenidae,  small  species,  generally  of 
a  blue  or  coppery  color,  with  the  under  side  sometimes  marked  with 
hair-like  streaks.  These  are  commonly  known  as  the  blues,  coppers,  or 
hair-streaks.  They  are  common  in  damp  places  and  along  watercourses. 

There  is  a  marked  difference  in  the  methods  of  transformation  in  the 
butterflies  and  moths.  In  the  former,  the  pupa  is  known  as  a  chrysalis; 
it  is  naked — not  inclosed  in  a  cocoon — and  is  always  abov.e  ground, 
there  being  no  subterranean  forms.  Usually  the  chrysalids  are  found 
attached  to  the  under  side  of  a  limb,  a  stone,  or  some  other  convenient 
place,  and  usually  pendent.  They  are,  as  a  rule,  obscure  in  color, 
although  some  are  brilliantly  marked  with  metallic  colors,  and  some 
are  ornamented  with  points  like  burnished  gold. 

The  pupa  of  the  moth  is  inclosed  in  a  cocoon.  This  may  be  a  silken 
web  woven  round  it  for  its  protection,  the  highest  form  of  which  we  find 
in  the  cocoon  of  the  silkworm,  or  it  may  be  a  mere  case  of  hardened 
earth,  silk-lined  and  buried. 

The  moths  vary  much  more  in  their  habits  than  do  the  butterflies, 
and  are  found  in  all  places.  Some  are  wood-borers,  and  pass  their 
transformations  in  the  trunks  of  the  trees  which  have  given  them  refuge; 
others  are  subterranean  in  their  larval  stage,  and  these  construct  cells 
of  earth  in  making  the  change;  others  are  plant  feeders,  and  these  may 
weave  a  cocoon  in  any  available  place.  The  butterfly  is  wholly  aerial. 
Its  larva  is  always  found  on  the  surface.  It  is  not  a  borer  or  a  bur- 
rower,  with  perhaps  the  exception  of  the  genus  Megathymus,  one  of  the 
skippers,  which  in  its  larval  stage  is  said  to  burrow  in  the  underground 
stem  of  the  yucca. 

In  the  Lepidoptera  the  three  principal  divisions  of  the  body  are  well 
defined.  The  head  is  small,  rather  broad  in  proportion  to  its  length, 
and  moves  freely  on  the  neck.  The  eyes  are  hemispherical  and  very 
prominent,  of  various  colors  in  the  different  species,  and  sometimes 
showing  a  few  hairs.  Two  ocelli  are  found  in  some  of  the  moths, 
usually  concealed  beneath  the  hairy  scales  which  cover  the  head,  and 
are  probably  of  no  service  as  visual  organs. 

In  their  larval  form,  members  of  this  order  are  popularly  known  as 
caterpillars,  but  the  smooth  species  a're  often  termed  worms — which,  by 
the  way,  like  most  popular  names,  is  a  misnomer — as  cankerworms, 
apple-worms,  cutworms,  budworms,  etc.  They  vary  very  much  in  size, 
form,  and  appearance,  according  to  species.  The  body  is  usually 


68  CALIFORNIA  STATE  COMMISSION  OP  HORTICULTURE. 

cylindrical,  and  is  composed  of  twelve  rings  or  segments,  besides  the 
head.  The  head  is  the  most  specialized  part  of  the  larva.  It  is  usually 
covered  by  a  horny  plate,  often  divided  down  the  middle  into  two  equal 
parts.  The  jaws  are  broad  and  strong,  serrated  or  toothed  on  the 
edges,  with  the  under  lip  or  labium  well  developed,  while  the  maxillaB 
and  palpi  in  most  species  are  rudimentary.  They  differ  very  greatly 
from  the  mature  insects;  in  fact,  it  may  be  said  that  they  do  not 
resemble  them  in  any  respect.  In  the  larval  form,  caterpillars  are 
vegetable  feeders  and  are  very  destructive;  their  mouth  parts  are 
formed  wholly  for  biting  and  chewing,  while,  in  the  perfect  insect,  these 
are  entirely  changed,  and  it  lives  by  suction.  The  internal  organs  and 
all  the  external  organs  are  changed  in  the  process  of  transformation. 

The  first  three  segments  behind  the  head  are  the  thoracic  segments, 
and  these  carry  the  jointed  feet,  which  afterwards  develop  into  the  feet 
of  the  mature  insect.  These  are  known  as  the  true  legs.  The  remaining 
segments,  usually  nine  in  number,  are  known  as  the  abdominal  seg- 
ments, and  on  these  we  find  the  false  or  prolegs,  varying  in  number 
from  two  to  five  pairs.  These  are  provided  with  a  circle  of  minute 
hooks,  in  the  place  of  feet,  which  enable  the  caterpillar  to  cling  fast  to 
the  plants  upon  which  it  feeds.  These  prolegs  disappear  in  the  mature 
insect.  Most  caterpillars  have  sixteen  legs,  including  the  true  and  false 
legs.  The  loopers,  or  measuring-worms,  however,  have  but  ten,  while 
the  bag-worms  have  but  six. 

Suborder  RHOPALOCERA.      (Butterflies.) 

While  the  moths  are  the  most  important  branch  of  the  Lepidoptera, 
greatly  exceeding  in  number  of  families  and  species  the  butterflies,  and 
are  of  much  greater  economic  importance  from  either  a  beneficial  or 
an  injurious  standpoint,  yet  the  former  are  the  more  widely  known 
and  admired  largely  owing  to  the  nocturnal  habits  of  the  greater  part 
of  the  moths,  and  also  to  the  fact  that  a  very  large  portion  of  them  are 
obscure  in  coloring,  while  nearly  all  the  butterflies  are  attractive. 

Butterflies  are  separated  into  five  families,  representatives  of  all  of 
which  are  found  in  California.  These  are: 

1.  Nymphalidse,  the  Brush-footed  Butterflies. 

2.  Lemoniidse,  the  Metal-marks. 

3.  Lycrenidse,  the  Blues,  Coppers,  and  Hair-streaks. 

4.  Papilionidse,  the  Swallow-tails,  etc. 

5.  Hesperiidre,  the  Skippers. 

The  family  Nymphalldse  is  distinguished  from  all  other  butterflies  by 
the  fact  that  in  both  sexes  the  first  or  prothoracic  pair  of  legs  is  greatly 
dwarfed,  useless  for  walking  and  carried  folded  up  against  the  breast. 
On  this  account,  members  of  this  family  are  sometimes  known  as  four- 


ENTOMOLOGY  IN  OUTLINE  —  LEPIDOPTERA. 


69 


footed  butterflies.  It  is  the  largest  of  all  the  families,  and  has  been 
divided  into  many  subfamilies.  It  is  generally  composed  of  large  or 
medium-sized  insects,  but  there  are  some  small  species  in  it.  Promi- 
nent in  this  family  is  the  large  Milkweed  butterfly,  or,  as  it  is  some- 
times called,  the  Monarch  (Anosia  plexippus).  This  is  a  cosmopolitan 


A,  Anotiti  ]>hsippn>i,  the  "model";  B,  K 
the  "mimic."    Natural  size. 


-hippus, 


insect,  and  is  found  nearly  the  world  over.  It  is  very  common  in  Cali- 
fornia, and  can  often  be  seen  on  a  summer  day  flying  westward  in  large 
numbers.  It  is  a  large,  red-brown  insect,  with  the  wing  veins  very 
broadly  marked  in  black.  The  caterpillars,  which  are  common  on  the 
milkweeds,  are  about  an  inch  and  a  half  in  length,  when  fully  grown, 
greenish  in  color,  marked  with  black  bars.  It  is  pretty,  even  in  its 
larval  form,  and  the  chrysalis  is  a  most  striking  object,  being  marked 
with  brilliant  golden  dots  along  the  margin. 


70 


CALIFORNIA  STATE  COMMISSION  OF  HORTICULTURE. 


Family  Lemoniidse.  Butterflies  belonging  to  this  family  are  mostly 
confined  to  the  new  world,  and  largely  to  the  tropical  sections.  Its 
distinguishing  features  are  that  the  males  have  but  four  walking  feet, 


B 


FIG.  60.    Kalliina  inachis.    A,  upper  surface;  B,  with  wings  closed,  showing 
resemblance  to  a  leaf. 

while  the  females  have  six,  and  the  antennae  are  longer  than  in  the 
first-named  family.  They  are  usually  small  insects,  but  are  very 
brightly  colored. 

The  family  Lycsenidse  is  a  very  large  one  of  mostly  small  butterflies, 
and  contains  some  of  the  most  beautiful  members  of  the  order.  Blue 
in  various  shades  is  a  common  color.  In  this  family  the  males  have 
four  and  the  females  six  walking  feet. 

Family  Papilionidse  (Swallow-tails).  In  this  family  both  sexes  have 
six  feet,  and  in  it  we  find  some  of  the  largest  and  most  striking  forms 
in  our  State.  One  of  the  most  common  and  showy  of  this  family  in 

our  State  is  Papilio  tur- 
nus,  the  large  yellow 
swallow-tail,  with  a 
sprea  d  of  wings  over  four 
inches.  (See  colored 
Plate  I.)  The  ground 
color  of  its  wings  is 
bright  yellow,  crossed 
with  broad  dashes  and 
streaks  of  black,  with 
black  border,  inclosing 
crescent-shaped  mark- 
ings. Near  the  tips  of  the  hinder  wings  are  bright  purple  and  yellow 
marks,  which  add  to  the  beauty  of  this  grand  insect. 

A  second  group  of  this  family  is  the  Pierinse,  which  include  the  well- 
known  cabbage-butterfly  (Pieris  rapse).  This  is  one  of  the  worst  pests 


FIG.  61.    Large  white  cabbage  butterfly  (Pieris  brassicse). 


ENTOMOLOGY  IN  OUTLINE — LEPIDOPTERA.  71 

of  all  the  butterfly  tribe.  It  was  imported  from  the  Mediterranean 
region  into  Canada  about  the  year  1868,  and  since  that  time  has  spread 
all  over  the  American  continent.  It  will  be  found  in  swarms  over 
cabbage  patches,  alfalfa  fields,  and  other  sections,  in  which  it  finds  its 
food  plants,  until  the  fields  sometimes  have  the  appearance  of  being  in 
a  snow  storm.  Its  larva  is  the  com- 
mon green  cabbage  caterpillar.  In 


FIG.  63.    Small  white  cabbage  butterfly 
Larva  of  Picris  brassiae.  (Pieris  rapx). 

connection  with  the  cabbage  whites,  we  often  find  a  bright  yellow  but- 
terfly, known  as  the  sulphur  yellow.  These  belong  to  the  genus  Colias 
and  are  very  common  in  alfalfa  fields,  as  the 
larva?  feed  upon  clover.  It  is  a  green  worm, 
verv  similar  to  the  cabbage-worm,  and  so 

FIG.  64.    Larva  of  Piens  rapx. 

nearly  the  color   of   its   food   plant  as  to  be 

difficult  to  find.  In  this  State  it  feeds  largely  upon  alfalfa,  and  while 
it  does  some  damage  to  this  crop,  can  not  be  regarded  as  a  very 
serious  pest. 

Family  Hesperiidse  (Skippers).  This  family  is  of  little  economic 
importance  to  us.  The  genus  Megathymus  is  said  to  have  the  habit, 
in  its  larval  stage,  of  burrowing  in  the  underground  stems  of  the  yucca, 
and.  therefore,  is  somewhat  of  an  anomaly  among  butterflies,  as  it  is  the 
only  one  which  works  beneath  the  surface.  The  family  is  interesting 
in  the  possession  of  certain  characteristics  which  seem  to  connect  the 
butterflies  with  the  moths.  Members  of  this  family  are  small,  with 
stout  bodies,  quick  and  powerful  in  flight,  and  have  a  peculiar  jerky 
motion,  from  which  their  common  name  is  derived.  They  have  six 
well-defined  feet  in  both  sexes,  and  in  their  metamorphoses  weave  a 
light  cocoon  of  a  few  silk  threads,  in  this,  as  in  many  other  respects, 
approximating  the  moths. 

In  North  America  alone  there  are  over  six  hundred  and  fifty  species 
of  butterflies,  but  all  belong  to  one  or  another  of  the  families  named. 

Suborder  HETEROCERA.      (Moths.) 

We  now  come  to  the  second  and'  more  important  division  of  the  order 
Lepidoptera,  the  Heterocera,  or  moths.  The  species  included  under 
this  division  are  far  more  numerous  and  of  greater  importance  in  every 


72 


CALIFORNIA  STATE   COMMISSION  OF  HORTICULTURE. 


way  than  are  those  classed  as  butterflies.  Among  the  moths  we  find 
some  of  our  most  important  insects  from  an  economic  standpoint; 
some  few  are  also  beneficial,  as  predaceous  upon  other  pests;  but  by  far 
the  greater  part  of  them  are  injurious  to  a  greater  or  less  degree, 
and  some  of  them  are  among  the  most  destructive,  costly,  and  serious 
of  all  our  insect  enemies.  The  codling-moth,  together  with  its 
destructive  work,  is  well  known  to  orchardists,  and  the  bee-moth  is  a 
terror  to  the  apiarist,  methods  to  circumvent  its  destructive  work  rack- 
ing the  brains  of  our  beemen.  The  Mediterranean  flour-moth  has,  on 
many  occasions,  put  large  and  costly  flouring-mills  out  of  business  by 
so  obstructing  the  machinery  with  its  webs  that  it  could  not  be  oper- 
ated. The  clothes-moth  and  its  destructive  work  are  well  known  to 
every  housekeeper,  and  so  the  list  might  be  almost  indefinitely  extended. 

As  stated  before,  as  most  of  these  insects  are  nocturnal  they  are  not 
so  well  known  as  the  butterflies,  which  fly  only  in  the  light,  but  they 
are  by  far  the  more  numerous,  covering  a  wider  range  of  families  and 
species,  and  working  their  destructive  operations  in  more  diverse  ways 
than  the  other  members  of  the  order. 

The  moths  with  which  we  are  acquainted  in  the  United  States  are 
divided  into  forty-three  families,  as  follows: 


1.  SphingidaB. 

2.  Saturniidse. 

3.  Ceratocampid^e. 

4.  Syntomidse. 

5.  Lithosiidse. 

6.  ArctiidaB. 

7.  AgaristidaB. 

8.  NoctuidaB. 

9.  Nycteolidse. 

10.  PericopidaB. 

11.  Dioptidse. 

12.  Notodontidse. 

13.  ThyatiridaB. 

14.  Liparidse. 

15.  LasiocampidaB. 


16.  BombycidaB. 

17.  Platypterygida3. 

18.  GeometridaB. 

19.  EpiplemidaB. 

20.  Nolidse. 

21.  LacosomidaB. 

22.  PsyehidaB. 

23.  Cochlid'iidaB. 

24.  MegalopygidaB. 

25.  DalceridaB. 

26.  EpipyropidaB. 

27.  ZygaBnidaB. 

28.  ThyrididaB. 

29.  CossidaB. 


30.  JEgeriidae. 

31.  PyralidaB. 

32.  PterophoridaB. 

33.  OrneodidaB. 

34.  TortricidaB. 

35.  YponomeutidaB. 

36.  GelechiidaB. 

37.  XylorictidaB. 

38.  (EcophoridaB. 

39.  Blastobasidas. 

40.  ElachistidaB. 

41.  TineidaB. 

42.  HepialidaB. 

43.  MicropterygidaB. 


Family  Sphingidse  (Hawk-moths).  These  moths  fly  at  twilight,  and 
are  very  noticeable  because  of  their  habit  of  hovering  over  flowers, 
from  which  they  extract  nectar  by  means  of  their  extraordinary  tongue, 
which  is  sometimes  several  times  the  length  of  the  insect.  Its  larva  is 
the  large  green  worm  often  found  on  tomatoes,  grapes,  tobacco,  etc. 
The  caterpillars  are  peculiar  in  the  possession  of  a  sharp,  curved 
horn  on  the  last  segment  of  the  body,  or  in  its  place  a  hard  eye-like 
spot.  When  at  rest,  some  of  them  have  the  habit  of  elevating  the 


ENTOMOLOGY  IN  OUTLINE — LEPIDOPTERA. 


73 


body  and  drawing  back  the  head,  giving  them  somewhat  the  resem- 
blance of  the  Sphinx,  from  which  they  take  their  name.  Some  of  the 
largest  of  the 
moths  are  found 
in  this  family, 
which  includes 
many  genera  and 
species. 


FIG.  t>5.    White-lined  Sphinx  moth  (Deilephila  Iweata).    Natural  size. 


The  family  Sat- 
urniidae  includes 
some  of  the  largest 
and  most  beauti- 
ful of  our  moths, 
and  the  Emperor 
moth  can  be  taken 

as  a  type  of  this  family.  The  larva  forms  a  cocoon  of  silk  and  the 
insect  is  sometimes  called  the  wild  silkworm.  Species  of  this  family  are 
not  uncommon  in  our  State,  although,  being  a  nocturnal  insect,  it  is  not 
so  commonly  met  with  as  some  of  the  day-fliers,  and  when  found  is  some- 
times considered  as  rare  by  the  finder.  One  of  the  most  striking  mem- 
bers of  the  family  which  is  found  here  is  the  Samia  cecropia.  The  larva 
of  this  moth  is  a  very  large  caterpillar,  and  is  generally  found  on  the 
wild  shrubbery,  although  it  sometimes  attacks  fruit  trees.  Its  favorite 
fruit  plant  is  the  Cascara  sagrada,  or  wild  coffee,  of  our  foothills. 

The  family  Ceratoeampidae  comprises  moths  of  large  or  medium  size 
which  do  not  produce  cocoons,  but  undergo  their  metamorphosis  under- 
ground. They  are  short-bodied  and  hairy,  and  usually  beautifully 
colored  in  tints. 

The  family  Syntomidse  is  of  little  interest  to  us,  as  its  members  are 
more  objects  of  curiosity  to  the  professional  entomologist  than  to  the 
producer,  being  in  no  sense  of  economic  importance.  They  are  small  to 


FIG.  6(1.    Caterpillar  of  white-lined  Sphinx  moth.    Slightly  enlarged. 

medium  sized  insects,  diurnal  in  their  habits,  and  frequent  flowers. 
Many  of  them  strongly  resemble  wasps  in  their  form  and  markings,  and 
are  sometimes  mistaken  bv  the  uninformed  for  those  insects. 


CALIFORNIA  STATE  COMMISSION  OF  HORTICULTURE. 


The  family  Lithosiidae  consists  of   small  or  medium   sized    insects, 
which  feed  principally  upon  lichens.     They  pupate  in  silken  cocoons, 

in  which  the  hairs  of  the 
larva  are  mixed.  They  are 
not,  as  a  rule,  destructive  to 
cultivated  plants,  and  so 
can  be  dismissed  from  fur- 
ther  consideration  here. 


FIG.  6" 


Yellow  bear  (Spilosoma  virginica).    a,  larva ; 
b,  pupa;  c,  moth. 


The  family  Aretiidse  is  a 
very  large  one,  being  repre- 
sented by  thirty-eight  genera 
and  over  two  thousand  spe- 
cies, of  which  there  are  some 
hundred  and  twenty  species 
in  the  United  States..  It  in- 

cludes the  so-called   woolly-bears   and   tiger-moths.     They  are   stout- 

bodied  moths   with  moderately  broad  wings  and  usually  spotted  or 

striped.     Some  of  them  are  very  highly  colored  and  others  are  white. 

They    are    mostly    nocturnal 

and  are  attracted  to  the  light. 

Their  larvae  are  covered  with 

long    hairs,  which    grow    in 

bunches,   and  they    are  very 

general   feeders,  being  found 

on  a  wide  range  of  vegetables. 

The  Arctiidse  are  represented 

in  our   State  by  the  fall  web- 

worm,  although  the  family  is 

a  very  numerous  one  with  us. 

The  family  Agaristidse  con- 
sists of  day-flying  moths,  us- 
ually of  moderate  size,  and 
it  contains  some  of  the  most 
beautiful  members  of  the  in- 
sect world,  although  the  most 
beautiful  members  of  it  are 
found  in  the  tropics.  In  Cali- 
fornia the  wood-nymphs  are 
common,  and  are  representa- 
tive of  this  family  here. 

The     family     NoetuidSB      in- 

eludes  a  very  large  number  of 


FIG.  68.     Catocala  lacrymosa.    A,  upper  surface  ;  B, 

™85  Cl°Sed'  ™&  '^  °"  ""*•    *" 


ENTOMOLOGY  IN  OUTLINE— LEPIDOPTERA.  75 

genera  and  species,  there  being  hundreds  of  the  former  and  thousands 
of  the  latter.  The  common  name  is  owlet-moths,  given  them  from  their 
nocturnal  habits,  and  their  soft-downy  appearance.  In  both  respects 
they  resemble  owls.  In  their  larval  form  they  are  injurious  to  vege- 
tation, and  are  among  the  worst  of  our  insect  enemies  in  this  order. 
The  cutworms,  which  are  so  destructive  to  young  plants,  belong  to  this 
family.  Many  of  the  moths. are  dull  colored,  but,  at  the  same  time,  the 
family  gives  us  some  of  the  most  beautiful  of  insects.  The  catocalas, 
or  under  wings,  also  belong  here.  The  members  of  this  family  have 
very  distinct  characteristics,  by  which  they  may  be  recognized,  and  the 
venation  of  the  wings  is  especially  very  constant. 

The  family  Nyeteolidse  is  a  small  one,  resembling  the  NoctuidaB  in 
many  respects,  and  is  represented  in  the  United  States  by  only  two 
genera. 

The  family  Perieopidse  somewhat  resembles  the  wood-nymphs,  but 
has  a  different  wing  venation.  They  are  not  common,  and  in  our 
State  are  represented  by  Gnophaslia  vermiculata,  a  beautiful  moth  found 
in  the  foothill  sections. 

The  family  Dioptidse  is  represented  by  only  one  species,  and  that  a 
California  one,  the  common  live-oak  moth  (Phryganidia  calif ornica). 
This  is  the  light-colored  weak  moth  which  appears  in  such  great  num- 
bers on  the  live  oaks  and  sometimes  entirely  defoliates  them. 

The  family  Notodontidse  includes  a  number  of  families  of  moths  of 
moderate  size,  ranging  up  to  two  inches  spread  of  wing.  .  They  strongly 
resemble  the  owlets,  from  which  they  differ  principally  in  wing  venation. 

The  Thyatiridse  are  another  family  resembling  the  owlets,  but  which 
present  sufficient  difference  to  class  it  as  a  separate  family. 

The  family  Liparidse  is  of  interest  to  us,  as  it  includes  among 
its  members  the  tussock-moth  (Hemerocampa  vetusta),  which  is  very 
widely  distributed  and  a  very  common  pest  in  California.  The  females 
of  this  genus  are  wingless,  or,  at  least,  possess  wings  of  a  very  rudi- 
mentary form.  The  female  deposits  her  eggs  on  the  cocoon  from  which 
she  has  emerged,  and  covers  them  with  a  frothy  mass,  after  having  per- 
formed which  duty  she  dies.  In  spite  of  the  common  prejudice  against 
caterpillars,  it  must  be  acknowledged  that  the  caterpillar  of  the  tussock- 
moth  is  a  beautiful  insect,  witfy  its  bright  yellow  color,  the  coral  red 
protuberances  on  the  last  dorsal  segments,  and  the  four  creamy  brush- 
like  tufts  on  its  back,  with  the  two  black  plumes  on  the  anterior,  and 
one  on  the  posterior  section  of  the  body.  Altogether,  as  a  caterpillar, 
it  is  remarkable  for  both  form  and  coloring. 


76 


CALIFORNIA  STATE   COMMISSION  OF  HORTICULTURE. 


The  gypsy-moth  (of  which  we  give  a  beautiful  illustration  in  colored 
Plate  XI),  whose  work  of  devastation  in  the  Eastern  and  New  Eng- 


FIG.  69.  Tussock-moth  (Henierocampa  retusta).  a,  female  moth  on 
cocoon  ;  b,  young  caterpillar;  c,  female  pupa;  d,  male  pupa;  e,  larva 
on  leaf;  /,  male  moth. 

land  States  has  attracted  the  attention  of  the  whole  country,  belongs, 
also,  to  this  family. 

The  family  Lasioeampidse  is  of  interest  to  us  principally  from  the 
fact  that  in  it  we  find  the  tent-caterpillars.  The  most  prominent 
members  of  this  family  are  well  known  from  their  habit  of  forming  a 


Female  moth.  Larva. 

FIG.  70.    Tent-caterpillar  (Clisiocampa  xylvatica). 

covering  or  tent,  in  which  they  congregate,  returning  to  it,  as  to  a  com- 
mon home,  after  they  have  gorged  themselves  on  the  foliage  of  the 
trees  which  they  infest.  When  they  outgrow  their  tent,  they  form 
another.  The  orchard  tent-caterpillar  (Clisiocampa  americana)  is 
sometimes  a  very  serious  pest  in  our  fruit  orchards,  especially  apples, 


ENTOMOLOGY  IN  OUTLINE  — LEPIDOPTER A.  77 

sometimes  entangling  the  whole  tree  with  its  webs.  They  live  in  com- 
munities, feed  in  droves,  and  are  capable  of  doing  great  damage,  unless 
checked. 

The  family  Bombyeidse  includes  the  true  silkworms.  The  true  silk- 
worm (Bombyx  mori)  appears  to  be  an  invention  of  man  in  the  insect 
world.  Its  origin  is  unknown,  none  of  its  species  existing  in  the  wild 
state,  and  it  has  been  so  long  under  cultivation  that  it  can  not  live 
unless  cared  for  by  man. 

The  family  Platypterygidse  has  a  few  representatives  among  us,  but 
they  are  of  no  economic  importance. 

The  family  Geometridse  includes  those  caterpillars  commonly  known 
as  loopers,  inch-worms,  measuring-worms,  etc.  They  are  all  vegetable 
feeders  and  very  destructive.  In  it  we  find  the  currant  span-worm,  the 
spring  and  fall  cankerworms,  and  many  others  too  well  known  to  our 
fruit-growers.  Over  eight  hundred  species  are  known  to  exist  in  the 
United  States 
and  Canada. 
The  caterpillars 
lack  all  save  one 
pair,  or  in  some 

cases   two  pairs,  FIG.  71.    Fall  cankerwonn  (Alsophila  pometaria).    a,  male  moth; 

.       .1  i  b,  female  moth;   c,  joints  of  antennae  of   female,  enlarged; 

<l.  segment  of  body  of   emale,  enlarged :  e,  larva. 

found    in   other 

caterpillars,  and  in  moving  are  compelled  to  make  the  peculiar  motions 
which  give  them  their  popular  names.  They  first  extend  the  body  its 
full  length,  then  bring  the  posterior  end  close  up  to  the  forelegs,  loop- 
ing the  body  in  the  middle,  then  stretch  out  the  fore  part  of  the  body 
again,  and  continue  these  motions  until  they  reach  their  desired  desti- 
nation. The  moths  have  slender  bodies,  small  heads,  and  very  broad, 
thin  wings.  In  many  species  the  females  are  wingless,  as  in  the 
cankerworms. 

The  family  Epiplemidse  is  a  small  one,  closely  related  to  the  Geom- 
eters, but  of  little  importance  to  us. 

The  family  Nolidse  is  another  small  one  of  rather  small  moths,  which 
are  of  little  interest  except  to  the  systematic  entomologist. 

The  family  Laeosomidse  is  a  small  one,  and  consists  of  moths  pecul- 
iar to  the  western  hemisphere.  It  is  thus  described  by  Holland: 
''While  the  perfect  insects  show  structural  resemblances  to  the  Pla- 
typterygidse,  the  caterpillars,  which  have  the  habit  of  constructing  for 
themselves  portable  cases  out  of  leaves,  which  they  drag  about  with 


78  CALIFORNIA  STATE  COMMISSION  OF  HORTICULTURE. 

them,  resemble  in  some  respects  the  Psychidae.  The  young  larva  of 
Cicinnus  melsheimeri,  immediately  after  hatching,  draws  together  two 
small  leaves  with  strands  of  silk,  and  makes  between  them  its  hiding- 
place.  Afterwards,  when  more  mature,  it  detaches  two  pieces  of  leaves, 
and  makes  out  of  them  a  case  which  it  carries  about  with  it,  and  which 
it  can  desert  at  will.  When  at  rest  it  ties  the  case  to  a  station  selected 
with  a  few  strands  of  silk,  which  it  bites  off  when  it  desires  again  to 
start  on  a  journey  among  the  branches.  The  larva  of  Lacosoma  makes 
a  case  by  doubling  a  leaf  at  the  midrib,  cutting  it  off  at  the  petiole,  and 
taking  it  with  it  as  a  portable  house.  There  are  only  two  genera  of 
this  family  in  our  fauna.  It  is  more  abundantly  represented  in  the 
tropics  of  South  America." 

The  family  Psyehidse  is  of  more  interest  to  us,  however,  as  in  it  we 
find  the  bag-worms,  or  basket-worms,  so  called  from  the  curious  habit 
the  larvae  have  of  making  for  themselves  a  case,  or  basket,  or  shelter, 
composed  of  pieces  of  leaves,  grass,  or  fragments  of  wood  or  other  vege- 
table substances.  These  fragments  are  carefully  joined  together  and 
lined  with  -silk,  spun  by  the  insect.  In  this  case  the  caterpillar  lives 
securely,  and  carries  it  along  wherever  it  goes,  much  as  the  snail  does 
its  shell.  It  does  not  do  much  damage.,  in  our  State,  as  it  confines  itself 
to  conifers  and  is  not  very  common.  When  the  bag-worm  has  attained 
its  full  growth,  it  attaches  the  bag  to  a  twig  and  changes  to  a  pupa 
within  it.  The  male  emerges  a  full-winged  insect,  but  the  female  is 
wingless  and  never  leaves  the  sack,  laying  the  eggs  for  a  new  generation 
within  the  house  she  has  inhabited  during  her  life. 

The  family  Coehlidiidse  consists  of  slug-like  caterpillars,  and  con- 
tains a  number  of  interesting,  modest  green  or  brown  moths.  They 
are  usually  of  small  size  and  very  densely  clothed  with  scales  or  hair. 
The  larvae  resemble  slugs  in  their  general  form,  being  usually  oblong 
in  shape  and  flattened.  They  have  no  visible  legs  and  move  like  slugs. 
Some  of  these  larvae  have  stinging  powers,  and  can  inflict  a  sharp, 
burning  sting  when  carelessly  handled. 

The  family  Megalopygidse,  or  flannel  moths,  is  a  small  family  of 
whitish  moths,  having  their  wings  densely  clothed  with  long,  curly 
hairs  resembling  bits  of  flannel.  Their  larvae  have  ten  pairs  of  legs- 
three  pairs  of  true  legs  and  seven  pairs  qf  prolegs — a  larger  number 
than  in  any  other  family  of  lepidopterous  larvae.  The  cocoons  have  a 
trap  door,  through  which  the  moth  escapes  after  it  has  passed  its 
metamorphosis. 

The  family  Daleeridse  is  a  small  one,  of  no  interest  to  the  fruit-grower. 

The  family  Epipyropidse  is  of  interest  to  us  from  the  fact  that  it  is  a 
family  of  parasitic  moths.  Among  all  the  vegetable  pests  of  this  order, 


ENTOMOLOGY  IN  OUTLINE— LEPIDOPTER A.  79 

it  is  so  pleasant  to  find  one  that  does  something  toward  redeeming  its 
reputation  by  being  of  some  service  in  checking  pests. 

Of  the  family  Zygsenidse  but  few  species  occur  in  the  United  States, 
and  none  are  destructive  to  fruit  trees. 

The  family  Chaleosiidse  is  represented  by  but  a  single  insect,  an 
obscure  moth  known  as  Gingla  later culde,  found  in  Arizona. 

The  family  Thyrididse  is  a  small  one,  and  consists  of  small  moths 
characterized  by  the  presence  of  small  white  or  yellowish  translucent 
spots  on  the  wings. 

The  family  Cossidse  is  of  more  interest  to  us,  for  in  this  we  find  some 
of  the  most  destructive  of  the  moth  family.  To  this  belong  the  goat- 
moths  or  carpenter-moths,  as  they  are  popularly  known.  In  their  larval 
stages  they  live  in  the  roots  and  trunks  of  trees  and  sometimes  do  great 
damage  to  the  tree  which  they  infest.  In  some  cases,  in  the  East, 
orchard  trees  have  been  killed  in  great  numbers  by  the  ravages  of  these 
moths.  They  are  said  to  remain  in  their  larval  stage  for  three  years, 
before  they  have  attained  their  growth.  They  pass  their  transformation 
in  the  burrows  which  they  have  eaten  out  in  the  wood,  and  when  ready 
for  the  change  the  larva  forces  itself  partly  out  from  the  burrow.  When 
the  moth  has  emerged,  the  empty  pupa  skin  can  be  seen  protruding 
from  the  burrow.  The  species  most  common  in  California  is  Priono.rys- 
tus  robiix.  It  is  a  large  gray  moth,  much  resembling  the  sphinx-moth 
in  general  appearance,  and  flies  by  night.  They  are  destructive  to 
elms,  locusts,  and  forest  trees,  but  have  not  as  yet  been  reported  as  doing 
damage  to  fruit  trees  in  our  State. 

In  the  family  ^Eg-eriidse  we  have  the  clear-winged  moths — a  family 
utterly  unlike  any  other  branch  of  the  Lepidoptera,  and  many  of  the 
members  more  resembling  wasps  than  moths.  They  are  of  small  size, 
with  slender  bodies,  and  fly  only  by  day  and  frequently  in  the  bright- 
est light.  They  are  all  borers,  and  among  them  are  some  of  our  most 
destructive  pests,  the  Western  peach-root  borer  (Sanninoidea  opal- 
escens),  the  Eastern  peach-root  borer  (S.  exitiosa),  the  currant  borer 
(Alcathoe  caudatum),  and  many  others,  being  representative  of 
the  family.  Many  of  the  matured  insects  are  very  beautiful,  and  most 
of  them  are  remarkable  on  account  of  their  protective  mimicry,  resem- 
bling, as  they  do,  insects  of  different  orders,  especially  bees,  wasps,  and 
flies.  This  strong  resemblance  to  stinging  insects  often  protects  mem- 
bers of  this  family  from  danger  to  which  their  day-flying  habits  would 
otherwise  expose  them.  Yet,  in  spite  of  their  threats  of  danger,  which 
are  carried  out  in  their  acts  as  well  as  in  their  coloring,  they  are  harm- 
less, and  it  is  all  a  mere  bluff  on  their  part  to  frighten  their  enemies. 


80    '  CALIFORNIA  STATE  COMMISSION  OF  HORTICULTURE. 

The  worst  representative  of  this  family  which  we  have  in  this  State  is 
the  peach-root  borer  (Sanninoidea  opalescens).  The  following  descrip- 
tion of  the  different  stages  of  this  insect  will  aid  those  who  are  troubled 
with  this  pest  in  detecting  it: 

Egg. — The  egg  is  very  minute,  not  exceeding  j-  mm.  in  length,  oval, 
light  brown  in  color,  and,  when  seen  through  a  lens,  ornamented  with 
hexagonal  sculpturing.  The  eggs  are  deposited  on  the  bark  of  the  tree, 
at  or  near  the  surface  of  the  ground;  rarely  they  are  laid  high  up  on 
the  trunk  or  even  in  the  crotches  of  the  trees.  This  last  phase  is  gen- 
erally found  in  the  grafted  trees,  where  gummy  exudations  have  occurred 
and  where  grafting  has  somewhat  soured  the  sap. 

Larva. — The  young  larvaB,  on  hatching,  are  very  active  and  imme- 
diately burrow  into  the  tree,  generally  entering  the  cracks  in  the  bark 


Female.  -,:« 

Pupa. 
FIG.  72.    Peach-root  borer  (Sanninoidea  opalescens). 

at  or  below  the  surface  of  the  ground.  Here  they  remain  constantly 
feeding  on  the  bark,  at  first  near  the  surface,  surrounding  themselves 
with  gum,  or  coagulated  sap,  and  gradually  enter  the  sapwood,  enlarg- 
ing their  burrows  as  they  increase  in  size.  The  full-grown  larva  is  pale 
yellow,  about  one  inch  long,  tapering  with  a  brown  head.  After  attain- 
ing its  growth,  the  borer  ascends  in  the  burrow  to  or  above  the  surface 
of  the  ground,  as  the  case  may  be,  and  begins  to  spin  a  cocoon. 

Cocoon. — This  is  made  up  of  a  silken  web  mixed  with  castings  and 
earth  glued  together,  and  is  of  a  brown  color,  from  1^  to  1^  inches  long. 

Pupa. — The  pupa  within  the  cocoon  is  shiny,  light  brown,  with  num- 
erous spines  on  the  abdomen.  When  about  to  emerge  the  pupa  is 
pushed  out  of  the  cocoon,  and  soon  the  adult  moth  emerges. 

Moth. — To  the  novice  this  insect  would  appear  more  like  a  blue  wasp 
than  a  moth.  The  female  differs  so  much  from  the  male  that  they 
might  be  taken  for  two  distinct  species.  The  female  has  bluish-black, 
opaque  front  wings,  while  the  hind  wings  are  transparent,  like  those  of 
a  wasp;  the  margin  of  both  wings  has  a  bluish-black  fringe;  antennae, 
head,  thorax,  and  abdomen  are  very  dark  steel  blue,  almost  black;  wing 
expanse,  li  inches.  The  male  has  fore  wings  nearly  transparent,  with 
upper  margin  and  tips  black;  hind  wings  are  transparent,  like  those  of 
female;  the  body  is  bluish  black;  the  abdomen  is  much  narrower  than 
that  of  female  and  more  elongated;  legs  are  black,  with  yellow  tufts  on 
femur  and  tibia;  wing  expanse,  1^  inches. 


ENTOMOLOGY  IN   OUTLINE  —  LEPIDOPTERA.  81 

The  family  Pyralidse  includes  moths  generally  of  small  size,  some  so 
small  in  fact  as  to  be  classed  as  micro-lepidoptera.  It  has  been  divided 
into  a  great  number  of  subfamilies,  genera,  and  species,  so  that  it  would 
be  impossible  in  a  limited  space  even  to  mention  them  all.  It  contains, 
however,  a  number  of'species  injurious  to  plants,  among  them  the  leaf- 
crumplers,  leaf-rollers,  case-bearers,  and  several  fruit-worms. 

In  the  family  Pyralidse,  and  subfamily  Galleriina?,  we  find  that  pest 
of  the  bee  men,  the  bee-moth  (Galleria  mellonella).  This  pest  is 
described  by  Prof.  C.  V.  Riley  as  follows:  "During  the  daytime  these 
moths  remain  quietly  ensconced  in  some  angle  of  the  hive,  but  as  night 
approaches  they  become  active,  and  the  female  uses  her  best  endeavors 
to  get  into  the  hive,  her  object  being  to  deposit  her  eggs  in  as  favorable 
a  place  as  possible.  Wire  gauze  contrivances  are  of  no  avail  to  keep 
her  out,  as  she  frequently  commences  flying  before  all  the  bees  have 
ceased  their  work.  But  even  if  she  were  entirely  prevented  from  enter- 
ing the  hive,  she  could  yet  deposit  her  eggs  on  the  outside,  or,  by  means 
of  her  extensive  ovipositor,  thrust  them  in  between  the  slightest  joint 
or  crack,  and  the  young  worms  hatching  from  them  would  readily 
make  their  way  into  the  hive.  The  moment  the  worm  is  hatched,  it 
commences  spinning  a  si] ken  tube  for  its  protection,  and  this  tube  is 
enlarged  as  it  increases  in  size.  The  worm  cuts  its  channels  right 
through  the  comb,  feeding  on  the  wax,  and  destroying  the  young  bees 
on  its  way.  When  full-grown,  it  creeps  into  a  corner  of  the  hive,  or 
under  some  ledge  at  the  bottom,  and  forms  a  tough,  white  cocoon  of 
silk  mingled  with  its  own  black  excrement.  In  due  time  the  moth 
emerges  from  this  cocoon.  A  worm-infested  hive  may  generally  be 
known  by  the  discouraged  aspect  which  the  bees  present,  and  by  the 
bottom  board  being  covered  with  pieces  of  bee-bread  mixed  with  the 
black,  gunpowder-like  excrement  of  the  worm.  *  *  *  If  a  hive  is 
very  badly  infested  with  the  worms,  it  is  better  to  drive  out  the  bees 
and  secure  what  honey  and  wax  there  may  be  left  than  to  preserve  it 
as  a  moth  breeder  to  infest  the  apiary.  If  put  into  a  new  hive,  the 
bees  may  do  something;  and  if  they  do  not,  there  is  no  loss,  as  they 
would  have  perished,  finally,  from  the  ravages  of  the  worm." 

The  family  Pterophoridse  includes  those  graceful,  elegant  little  moths 
commonly  known  as  plume-moths,  from  the  fact  that  their  wings  are 
divided  in  such  a  manner  as  to  suggest  feathers.  Sixty  species  are 
known  in  the  United  States.  They  are  vegetable  feeders,  but  do  little 
damage  to  fruit. 

The  family  Tortrieidse  is  so  named  from  its  habit  of  rolling  up  the 
leaves  of  plants  upon  which  the  insects  feed,  and  on  this  account  they 
have  received  the  common  name  of  "  leaf-rollers."  It  must  be  remem- 
bered, however,  that  not  all  leaf-rollers  belong  to  this  family,  nor  are 

6-E 


82 


CALIFORNIA  STATE  COMMISSION  OF   HORTICULTURE. 


' 


FIG.  73.    Codling-moth  (Carpocapsa  pomonella),  showing 
variations.    All  natural  size. 


all  of  its  members  leaf-rollers.     The  family  includes  a  number  of  sub- 
families, genera,  and  species.     Many  of  them  live  in  plants  or  burrow 

into  fruits  or  the  stems 
of  plants,  and  in  this 
family  we  find  that 
most  destructive  of  all 
^^  f ruit  pests,  the  codling- 

moth  (Carpocapsa  po- 
monella).  This  one 
pest  causes  a  loss  to 
the  fruit-growers  of 
America  running  into 
tens  of  millions  of 
dollars  annually. 
While  the  other  mem- 
bers of  this  family 
are  hurtful  to  plants,  none  of  them,  nor  all  together,  have  attained  the 
unenviable  prominence  of  the  codling-moth. 

The  family  Yponomeutidse  is  of  moderate  size,  containing  about 
sixty  species  in  the  United  States.  It  is  of  little  economic  value. 

The  family  Geleehiidae  consists  of  small  moths,  many  if  not  most  of 
them  being  injurious  to  vegetation.  One  of  these,  an  introduced  spe- 
cies, by  the  way,  is  the  potato-moth,  which  is  becoming  a  very  severe 
pest  in  this  State.  In  this  family,  too,  is  found  the  destructive  peach- 
twig  borer  (Anarsia  lineatella).  This  pest,  like  all  our  worst  insects' 
was  probably  introduced  into  California  from  Japan,  of  which  country 
it  seems  to  be  a  native. 

The  families  Xylorietidse,  (Eeophoridse,  Blastobasidse  and  Elaehistidse 
afe  generally  small  families  of  small  insects.  Their  different  peculiar- 
ities have  caused  them  to  be  assigned  to  separate  families,  but,  except  to 
the  systematic  entomologist,  they  are  of  little  interest. 

In  the  family  Tineidse,  however,  we  have  some  members  which  are 
of  direct  interest  to  us.  This  is  a  very  large  family,  generally  of  small  • 
moths,  although  some  of  them  attain  moderate  size.  These  insects 
have  narrow  wings  bordered 'with  a  fringe,  and  some  of  them,  although 
-exceedingly  small,  are  very  beautiful.  Some  of  the  members  of  this 
family  are  so  minute  that  they  attain  their  full  growth  and  undergo 
their  metamorphosis  within  the  tissue  of  the  leaves  in  which  they  live. 
Some  of  them,  when  they  appear  in  great  numbers,  are  very  destructive. 
When  it  is  considered  that  the  leaves  of  trees  are  often  no  thicker  than 
a  sheet  of  paper,  and  that  they  consist  of  an  upper  and  a  lower  surface, 


— 


ENTOMOLOGY    IN    OUTLINE— DIPTER A.  83 

or  skin,  and  that  on  the  fleshy  part  of  the  leaves,  between  these  two 
layers,  these  insects  feed  and  live  and  pass  through  all  their  changes, 
it  will  be  understood  how  minute  they,  or  some  of  them,  are.  It  is  in 
this  family,  too,  that  we  find  that  greatest 
of  all  pests  to  the  careful  housewife,  the 
clothes-moth  (Tineola  bisselliella) .  This 
is  not  the  only  culprit,  however,  for  while 
to  the  disgusted  housewife,  who  finds  her 
woolens  eaten  full  of  holes,  there  is  but 
one  clothes-moth,  the  entomologist  recog- 
nizes several  species,  ail  guilty  of  like 
destruction.  Among  these  are  the  case- 
bearing  clothes-moth  (T.  pellionella),  the  tube-building  clothes-moth 
(T.  tapetzella),  and  the  naked  clothes-moth  (T.  bisselliella),  mentioned 
above. 

The  family  Hepialidse  is  a  small  one,  composed  of  large  or  moderate 
sized  moths.  Its  members  are  not  sufficiently  numerous  to  be  of 
importance  economically. 

The  Mieroptepygidse.  The  last  family  of  this  branch  of  the  order 
Lepidoptera  is  one  of  little  importance  to  our  readers.  This  family  is 
remarkable  only  for  the  reason  that  it  reveals  certain  anatomical 
features  which  are  thought  to  point  out  an  early  connection  between 
this  and  other  orders. 

Order  DIPTERA. 

(Two-winged  Flies.) 

Like  that  of  the  other  orders  of  insects,  the  name  of  this  order  is  com- 
posed of  two  Greek  words,  dis.  two.  and  pteron,  wing.  As  before  stated, 
the  wing  peculiarities  have  been  taken  by  entomologists  to  divide  the 
orders  of  insects,  and  in  this  order  most  of  the  members  have  but  two 
wings,  while  in  all  others,  as  a  rule,  there  are  four  wings  present.  But 
even  to  this  rule  there  are  exceptions,  as  we  have  shown,  for  in  most  of 
the  orders  some  of  the  members  are  wingless,  while  in  some,  as  in  the 
male  of  scale  insects,  there  are  two-winged  insects.  But  the  rule  works 
in  the  Diptera  to  this  extent,  that  most  of  its  members  have  two  wings 
and  no  more.  There  is  in  them  what  appears  to  be  the  rudiments  of 
another  pair,  in  a  pair  of  little  knobbed  hooks,  known  as  halteres, 
which  occupy  the  place  of  hinder  wings  in  the  members  of  other  orders. 
These  halteres  are  present  even  in  those  few  species  in  'which  the  fore 
wings  are  entirely  absent. 

As  with  the  word  "bug/'  so  with  the  word  "fly";  it  is  wrongly  used. 
To  the  average  person,  either  of  these  terms  may  mean  almost  any  kind 
of  an  insect,  the  latter,  of  course,  being  applied  to  insects  with  wings 


84  CALIFORNIA  STATE  COMMISSION  OF  HORTICULTURE. 

which  are  not  butterflies  or  moths.     The  name  "fly,"  however,  is  only 
properly  applied  to  members  of  the  order  Diptera. 

Considering  the  number  of  individuals  and  the  number  of  species, 
flies  very  greatly  exceed  any  other  order.  They  are  common  every- 
where, in  the  houses,  fields,  swamps,  and  plains.  Their  members  swarm 
in  every  place  ever  penetrated  by  man.  Within  this  order  are  some  of 
the  most  serious  pests  with  which  we  are  troubled,  and  they  attack 
alike  our  animal  and  vegetable  products,  and  man  himself  suffers  more 
from  them  than  from  any  other  of  the  orders.  We  can  escape  in  some 
manner  our  insect  enemies  in  the  other  orders,  but  not  always  the 
Dipterons. 

In  this  order  we  have  the  mosquito  family,  some  members  of  which 
spread  disease  and  death  in  the  germs  of  yellow  fever  and  malaria. 
It  may  be  safely  asserted  that  this  family  alone  is  the  source  of  greater 
suffering,  hardship,  and  even  death  to  mankind  than  any  other  one 
cause.  This  order,  too,  furnishes  the  dreaded  fruit-flies,  one  of  the  most 
destructive  pests  with  which  the  fruit-grower  has  to  cope,  and  which 
fortunately  has  not  yet  obtained  a  foothold  in  California.  The  disrep- 
utable botfly;  the  sheep-tick,  a  wingless  form;  the  Hessian-fly,  which 
causes  a  loss  to  the  farmers  of  the  United  States  of  $100,000,000 
annually;  the  ox  warble  fly,  which  causes  a  loss  as  high  as  $40,000,000 
on  hides,  and  others  too  numerous  to  mention,  but  most  injurious  to  a 
greater  or  less  extent,  all  belong  to  this  order  of  two-winged  flies.  At 
the  same  time,  there  are  many  of  its  members  which  are  friendly  to 
man  and  which  give  us  some  of  our  most  valuable  beneficial  insects. 
Among  these  are  the  Tachnid  flies,  one  of  which  is  the  principal  check 
on  the  locusts,  and  without  whose  work  California  would  suffer  severely 
every  season  from  the  locust  pest.  The  Syrphus  flies  are  another  of 
our  friendly  families  which  feed  upon  the  aphids  and  serve  largely  to 
keep  them  down. 

As  indicating  the  vast  numbers  of  this  order,  it  may  be  stated  that 
there  are  already  over  40,000  described  species,  and  it  is  estimated  that 
this  number  would  be  increased  to  350,000  if  all  the  species  were  known. 
All  the  members  of  this  order  are  suctorial  insects,  and  their  mouth 
parts  are  formed  to  this  end.  The  methods  of  different  species  in  pro- 
curing their  food,  however,  differ  widely.  Some  simply  absorb  fluids, 
or  reduce  their  food  to  a  fluid  state,  in  order  to  absorb  it,  as  with  the 
house-fly;  others  are  provided  with  a  piercing  beak,  with  which  they 
are  enabled  to  drill  a  hole  into  their  victim  and  suck  his  blood,  as  with 
the  mosquito.  •  Some  absorb  the  juices  of  vegetables,  others  of  animals, 
and  others  again  have  no  choice  but  to  take  whatever  comes  handiest. 
The  larvae  of  flies  are  known  as  maggots.  They  are  usually  footless 
grubs,  and  pass  through  a  perfect  transformation.  In  some  cases  the 
eggs  hatch  within  the  body  of  the  female,  and1  the  young  maggots  are 


ENTOMOLOGY   IN    OUTLINE— DIPTER A.  85 

produced  alive,  and,  in  other  cases  even,  the  female  gives  birth  to  the 
young  in  the  pupa  form.  As  a  rule,  however,  there  are  the  usual  well- 
defined  periods  of  the  insect  life.  With  many  of  the  flies,  as  in  the  case 
of  meat-flies,  the  eggs  hatch  very  soon  after  deposition,  and  the  in- 
sect passes  through  all  its  changes  in  a  very  short  time.  In  this  we 
see  a  wise  provision  of  nature,  which  arranges  that  the  fly  shall  pass 
through  its  young  stage  and  reach  perfection  while  its  food  is  available. 
If  it  were  to  remain  long  in  its  larval  stage,  its  food  supply  would 
putrefy,  and  dry  up  before  the  insect  matured,  and  the  young  fly  would 
die  of  starvation. 

Flies  are  adapted  to  various  conditions,  and  breecl  under  all  circum- 
stances. Some  are  aquatic,  as  the  mosquitoes;  some  subterranean,  as 
the  crane-flies.  Many  breed  in  dirt  and  filth,  and  some  swarm  in 
cesspools,  as  the  rat-tailed  larva? — the  young  of  a  Syrphus  fly — and  we 
have  seen  masses  of  maggots  crawling  in  the  crude  oil  running  from 
the  wells,  and  apparently  well  satisfied  with  conditions  which  would 
have  knocked  out  any  other  form  of  insect  life. 

One  of  the  most  terrible  of  the  dipterous  pests  is  the  so-called  screw- 
worm  (Compsomyia  macellaria) .  This  is  a  common  species  throughout 
a  large  portion  of  our  country,  and  ordinarily  feeds  upon  dead  or 
decaying  vegetable  matter.  Under  some  circumstances,  however,  it 
attacks  living  animals,  and  in  the  Southern  and  Southwestern  states 
occasionally  becomes  a  terrible  pest.  On  such  occasions  it  lays  its  eggs 
on  man  or  animals  wherever  there  is  the  slightest  trace  of  a  wound, 
bruise,  or  offensive  discharge  of  any  kind.  The  larva?  bore  directly 
into  the  living  flesh,  causing  intense  pain  as  well  as  suppurating  sores. 
Living  larvae  are  produced,  as  well  as  eggs  almost  ready  to  hatch,  and 
in  any  opening  from  which  there  is  a  discharge  of  any  kind  eggs  may 
be  deposited.  Sleeping  humans  with  an  offensive  breath,  or  with  a 
fetid  discharge  from  the  nostrils  or  mouth,  have  had  eggs  laid  at  these 
points,  and  .larva?  have  made  their  way  into  the  head  in  some  cases, 
causing  the  death  of  the  individual.  Eggs  have  also  been  laid  in  the 
far-  of  uncleanly  people,  and  the  channels  and  passages  of  these  organs 
have  been  penetrated  into  the  head  and  destroyed.  Animals  are 
troubled  in  the  same  way.  and  where  the  insects  are  abundant  their 
attacks  often  become  fatal.  The  following,  which  appeared  in  a  San 
Bernardino  paper  several  years  ago,  gives  a  very  vivid  account  of  the 
work  of  this  dreaded  insect:  "George  Madden,  a  Western  Union  Tele- 
graph lineman,  was  brought  to  the  county  hospital  from  the  desert 
afflicted  with  a  most  loathsome  complaint,  actually  being  eaten  up 
alive  by  thousands  of  minute  worms  which  have  hatched  from  the  eggs 
laid  in  his  nostrils  while  he  was  asleep.  A  description  of  his  condition 
is  too  revolting  to  be  printable.  Madden  states  that  three  weeks  ago 
he  was  employed  by  the  telegraph  company  at  Los  Angeles  and  was 


86  CALIFORNIA  STATE  COMMISSION  OF  HORTICULTURE. 

sent  to  the  Arizona  desert.  At  night  he  was  considerably  pestered  by 
gnats,  but  had  no  idea  of  the  terrible  danger  to  which  he  had  been 
exposed  until  a  week  later,  when  he  was  seized  with  dizziness.  .  He  was 
taken  to  Needles,  where  it  was  discovered  that  the  gnats  had  deposited 
eggs  in  his  nostrils  and  that  they  were  hatching.  The  poor  fellow  was 
brought  here,  where  everything  possible  is  being  done  to  allay  his 
sufferings,  but  no  hope  is  entertained  for  his  recovery.  This  is  the 
second  case  of  the  kind  treated  here." 

The  Diptera  are  divided  into  two  suborders,  the  Orthorrhapha,  in 
which  the  insects  make  their  escape  from  the  pupa  case  either  through 
a  T"snaPed  slit  near  the  head,  or  in  fewer  species  through  a  crosswise 
slit  between  the  seventh  and  eighth  abdominal  segments.  The  second 
suborder  is  the  Cyclorrhapha,  in  which  the  insect,  after  passing  its  meta- 
morphosis, escapes  from  the  pupa  case  through  an  opening  made  at  the 
head  part  of  it.  These  two  suborders  are  divided  into  families,  accord- 
ing to  Comstock's  classification,  which  we  have  adopted,  as  follows: 

Suborder  ORTHORRHAPHA. 

1.  PsychodidaB,  the  Moth-like  flies. 

2.  Tipulidse,  the  Crane-flies. 

3.  BlepharoceridaB,  the  Net-winged  Midges. 

4.  DixidaB,  the  Dixa-midges. 

5.  Culicida?,  the  Mosquitoes. 

6.  Chironomidse,  the  Midges. 

7.  Mycetophilidae,  the  Fungus-gnats. 

8.  CecidomyiidaB,  the  Gall-gnats. 

9.  RhyphidaB,  the  False  Crane-flies. 

10.  OrphnephilidaB,  the  Solitary-midge. 

11.  Bibionidse,  the  March-flies. 

12.  Simuliidse,  the  Black-flies. 

13.  TabanidaB,  the  Horse-flies. 

14.  Stratiomyiida?,  the  Soldier-flies. 

15.  Leptidse,  the  Snipe-flies  (in  part). 

16.  Acroceridas,  the  Small-headed  flies. 

17.  NemistrinidaB,  the  Tangle-veined  flies. 

18.  Asilidse,  the  Robber-flies. 

19.  Midaidse,  the  Midas-flies. 

20.  ApioceridaB,  the  Apiocerids. 

21.  Bombylida?,  the  Bee-flies. 

22.  TherevidaB,  the  Stiletto-flies. 

23.  Scenopinidse,  the  Window-flies. 

24.  EmpididaB,  the  Dance-flies. 

25.  DolichopodidaB,  the  Long-legged  flies. 

26.  LonchopteridaB,  the  Spear-winged  flies. 


ENTOMOLOGY    IN    OUTLINE  —  DIPTERA.  87 

Few  of  the  families  of  this  suborder  are  of  interest  to  us  from  an 
economic  viewpoint,  as  most  of  those  mentioned  have  no  direct  bearing 
upon  our  welfare;  they  may,  therefore,  be  dismissed  with  a  bare  men- 
tion. Some,  however,  are  of  more  importance,  as  among  them  we  find 
some  of  our  most  beneficial  insects,  our  friends,  as  well  as  some  that 
are  very  destructive,  or,  at  least,  very  injurious  to  us. 

The  family  Psyehodidse  consists  of  small  flies  very  much  resembling 
moths  in  appearance,  and  are  often  found  on  the  under  side  of  leaves. 

The  family  Tipulidse  includes  the  crane-flies,  sometimes  popularly 
called  daddy-long-legs.  The  larvae  of  these  flies  live  in  the  ground  and 
are  very  tough  and  wiry,  resembling  wire  worms  in  this  respect.  They 
live  on  grass  and  grain  roots  and  may  become  very  destructive.  Some- 
times they  are  so  numerous  as  to  kill  out  lawns  in  which  they  have 
become  established.  There  are  a  large  number  of  species,  ranging  in 
size  from  a  gigantic  insect,  an  inch  and  a  half  in  length,  with  a  spread 
of  leg  several  inches  in  diameter,  to  some  not  larger  than  mosquitoes, 
which  they  greatly  resemble  in  general  structure.  This  family  is 
representative,  so  far  as  the  structure  is  concerned,  of  a  large  group, 
the  Midges,  which  resemble  them.  In  these  the  bodies  are  long  and 
tapering,  the  legs  generally  very  long  and  usually  widely  spread,  so  that 
the  insect  has  the  appearance  of  walking  on  stilts. 

The  family  Blepharoeepidse.  the  net-winged  midges,  includes  several 
families  of  aquatic  insects,  somewhat  resembling  mosquitoes  in  form, 
but  different  from  them  in  wing  venation.  They  breed  in  swiftly 
running  water,  and  in  some  species  there  are  two  forms  of  females,  one 
of  which  is  blood-sucking,  while  the  other  lives  by  sipping  nectar. 

The  family  Dixidse  is  another  family  of  midges  also  resembling  mos- 
quitoes, and  differing  from  the  former  family  in  wing  venation.  m 


The  family  Culieidse  is  one  alto- 
gether too  well  known,  as  it  is  in 
this  that  we  find  the  whole  abom- 
inable race  of  mosquitoes.  This  is 
not  a  very  large  family,  although 
it  is  perhaps  one  of  the  worst  ene- 
mies with  which  the  animal  world, 
including  man  himself,  has  to  con- 
tend. Members  of  this  family  are 
found  the  world  over.  In  some 
sections  of  the  tropics  they  are  so 
bad  as  to  render  the  places  infested 

_        .  FIG.  75.    Adult  female  of  Ciilcx  pipi' »*. 

by  them  uninhabitable,  and  miners          enlarged.    (Miss.  Agr.  EXP.  station.) 


CALIFORNIA  STATE  COMMISSION  OF  HORTICULTURE. 


FIG.  76.     Female  of 


in  far  northern  Alaska 
report  them  as  the  se- 
verest plague  of  that 
section.  Explorers 
have  not  yet  penetrated 
sufficiently  far  to  the 
north  or  south  to  es- 
cape the  mosquito. 
Every  one  dreads  this 
pest.  Their  droning 
sound  in  the  still  hours 
of  the  night  always 
brings  with  it  a  feeling 

enlarged.     (Miss.  Q|  irritation  and  dread) 

and    the    poisonous 

wounds  inflicted  by  them  are  well  known  to  everybody.  It  has  now 
been  definitely  proven  that  the  bite  of  the  common  mosquito,  Culex 
irritans,  with  all  its 
pain  and  irritation,  is 
the  lesser  evil  inflicted 
by  the  members  of  this 
family,  for  there  is  now 
no  doubt  that  they  are 
active  agents  in  the 
spread  of  malaria  and 
yellow  fever,  and  per- 
haps of  other  malig- 
nant contagious  dis- 
eases. To  the  non-ento- 
mologist a  mosquito  is 


FKi 


At  left,  head  of  male  Cttlc.r:  at  right,  head  of  female 
Culex,  enlarged.    (Miss.  Agr.  Exp.  Station.) 


a  mosquito,  but  to  the  entomologist  there  are  numerous  species  included 
under  this  title,  all  of  varying  degrees  of  badness,  ranging  from  bad  to 

worse  and  worst,  the 
plagued  pipens,  which 
annoy  us  so,  not  being 
among  the  worst.  The 
malaria-spreading 
mosquito  is  known  as 
Anopheles  maculipen- 
/r/.s,  while  that  to  which 
we  owe  the  dissemina- 
tion of  yellow  fever 
goes  by  the  name  of 
Stegomyia  fasciata.  It 
would  seem  that  the 


FIG.  78.  At  left,  head  of  Anopheles,  showing  appendages:  at 
right,  head  of  Culex,  showing  appendages  Enlarged. 
(Miss.  Agr.  Exp.  Station.) 


ENTOMOLOGY   IN    OUTLINE— DIPTERA.  89 

blood-sucking  propensity  of  the  mosquito  family  is  an  acquired  taste,  for 
while  all  that  can,  absorb  our  blood  with  that  of  other  warm-blooded 
animals,  they  breed  in  countless  billions  in  swamps  and  marshes,  far 
from  any  warm-blooded  animals,  and  there  they  live  and  die  without 
tasting  blood. 

The  mosquito  breeds  in  water,  and  the  so-called  wigglers"  found  in 
stagnant  pools  are  the  young  form  or  larvae.  While  aquatic  in  their 
mode  of  life,  these  larvae  are  air-breathing,  and  have  to  come  to  the 
surface  for  a  supply  of  air.  For  this  reason  they  frequently  come  to 
the  top,  stick  out  their  breathing  apparatus,  which  is  a  sort  of  tail-like 
tuft,  and  after  absorbing  the  supply  of  air,  disappear  in  the  depths  of 
their  breeding-pool  again.  It  is  for  the  reason  that  the  larvae  are  com- 
pelled to  come  to  the  surface  to  breathe  that  pouring  coal  oil  over  stag- 
nant pools  will  keep  them  down  and  is  the  most  effective  remedy  for 
this  evil. 

The  family  Chironomidse  are  the  true  midges,  small  mosquito-like 
insects.  They  differ  from  the  former  family  in  their  wing  markings 
and  habits,  not  being  addicted  to  blood  sucking.  Sometimes  they  are 
so  numerous  as  to  be  annoying,  but  otherwise  they  are  neither  good 
nor  bad. 

The  family  Myeetophilidse  consists  of  small  to  medium  insects,  gen- 
erally resembling  the  mosquito  in  structure.  The  larvae  live  upon 
fungi  and  decaying  vegetable  matter. 

The  family  Ceeidomyiidse,  the  gall-gnats,  are  small  insects,  including 
the  smallest  of  this  order.  Their  common  name  indicates  their  habits. 
Many  of  them  are  very  serious  pests  to  the  farmer,  for  in  this  family 
are  many  which  attack  crops,  as  the  clover-leaf  midge  and  the  wheat 
midge,  both  of  which  do  great  damage  to  crops,  and  here  we  have  that 
worst  of  all  grain  pests,  the  Hessian-fly.  It  is  impossible  to  accurately 
estimate  the  amount  of  damage  actually  inflicted  upon  our  farmers 
annually  by  this  pest,  but  it  runs  into  the  hundreds  of  millions.  For- 
tunately the  wheat-growers  of  California  have  not  been  troubled  much 
by  this  insect,  due,  probably,  to  the  habit  of  burning  over  old  stubble  in 
the  fields,  by  which  means  the  eggs  are  destroyed. 

The  Rhyphidse,  the  false  crane-flies;  the  Orphnephilidse,  the  solitary- 
midges;  the  Bibionidse,  the  March-flies;  and  the  Simuliidse,  the  black- 
flies,  are  all  families  of  little  importance  except  to  the  entomologist. 

The  family  Tabanidse  includes  the  horse-flies.  These  are  well  known 
and  are  one  of  the  worst  pests  of  our  domestic  animals  during  the 
summer  season,  when  they  sometimes  attack  horses  in  swarms  and 
cause  them  much  trouble.  These  insects  have  such  sharp  mandibles 


90  CALIFORNIA  STATE  COMMISSION  OF  HORTICULTURE. 

that  they  can  pierce  the  skin  as  soon  as  they  alight,  and  man  himself 
often  suffers  from  their  attacks.  In  their  larval,  as  well  as  in  their 
mature,  form,  these  insects  are  carnivorous. 

The  family  Stratiomyiidse,  or  soldier-flies,  is  so  named  from  the 
bright-colored  stripes  borne  by  some  members.  These  flies  are  common 
in  the  vicinity  of  swamps,  and  are  both  carnivorous  and  vegetarian. 

The  family  Leptidse  embraces  the  snipe-flies,  so  called  from  the  fan- 
cied resemblance  to  those  birds,  due  to  a  lengthened  abdomen.  The 
members  of  this  family  are  predaceous,  and  frequent  low  shrubbery 
and  grass.  The  larva?  live  in  the  earth,  decaying  wood,  and  sometimes 
in  water,  and  in  this  form  they  are  always  predaceous. 

The  family  Aeroeeridse  are  the  small-headed  flies,  peculiar-looking 
insects,  in  which  the  head  is  disproportionately  small  in  comparison 
with  their  bodies. 

The  family  Nemistrinidse  are  medium-sized  insects,  some  of  them 
resembling  horse-flies. 

The  family  Asilidse  includes  the  robber-flies,  of  which  there  are  so 
many  species,  and  all  are  predaceous,  preying  upon  other  insects. 
They  live  largely  upon  moths,  and  in  their  larval  form  prey  upon  the 
larvae  of  beetles.  They  are  not  at  all  discriminating  in  their  choice  of 
food,  however,  and  attack  many  insects.  They  are  mostly  large  flies, 
some  species  being  an  inch  or  more  in  length.  Usually  they  are  long, 
with  a  sharp,  tapering  abdomen,  although  some  species  are  short  and 
stout  and  somewhat  resemble  a  bumblebee  in  form.  From  their  preda- 
ceous habits  and  their  voracious  appetites,  they  may  be  classed  as  bene- 
ficial insects. 

The  Midaidse,  the  midas-flies,  which  resemble  the  robber-flies  some- 
what in  appearance;  the  Bombylidse,  the  bee-flies,  in  which  family 
there  are  many  which  strongly  resemble  bees  in  color  and  markings; 
the  Therevidse,  or  stiletto-flies,  are  all  families  of  little  importance 
except  to  the  professional  entomologist. 

The  Seenopinidse,  or  window-flies,  are  so  called  from  their  habit  of 
congregating  in  the  windows.  They  are  small  insects  with  a  long, 
slender  body,  much  sharper  than  the  common  house-fly,  and  in  the 
larval  form  are  sometimes  found  under  carpets  and  in  decaying  wood. 

The  last  family  in  this  suborder  is  the  Lonehopteridse,  or  spear- 
winged  flies,  and  one  of  little  interest  to  us. 


ENTOMOLOGY   IN    OUTLINE  — DIPTERA.  91 

Suborder  CYCLORRHAPHA. 

The  second  suborder  into  which  the  Diptera  are  divided  is  the  Cyclor- 
rhapha.  which  includes  all  those  flies  which  make  their  escape  from  the 
pupa  case,  or  larval  skin,  by  a  round  opening  formed  in  the  top  by  the 
imago  pushing  out  its  ^ead,  the  first  suborder  which  we  have  been  con- 
sidering escaping  through  a  slit  made  in  the  back. 

1.  Syrphidse,  the  Syrphus-flies. 

2.  Pipunculidse,  the  Big-eyed  flies. 

3.  Platypezidse,  the  Flat-footed  flies. 

4.  Phoridse,  the  Humpbacked  flies. 
•5.  Conopidse,  the  Thick-head  flies. 

6.  (Estridse,  the  Botflies. 

7.  Muscidse,  the  Muscids. 

8.  Hippoboscidse,  the  Louse-flies. 

9.  Nycteribiida?,  the  Bat-ticks. 
10.  Braulidse,  the  Bee-louse. 

The  family  first  to  be  considered  here  is  the  Syrphidse,  in  which  we 
find  several  beneficial  species.  This  is  a  very  large  family  and  includes 
over  700  species  so  far  named  and  described.  They  are  moderate-sized 
insects  and  are  great  mimics,  many  of  them  strongly  resembling  bees, 
wasps,  and  other  insects.  In  fact,  the  Eristalis  tenax,  or  drone-fly,  so 
strongly  resembles  the  honey-bee  that  it  is  frequently  mistaken  for  it, 
the  principal  difference  being  in  the  fact  that  it  is  a  dipterous  insect, 
while  the  bee  has  four  wings.  Another  difference  is  that  this  insect 
has  no  sting,  although  its  strong  resemblance  to  the  honey-bee  admon- 
ishes the  ignorant  to  avoid  it.  The  larva  of  this  fly  lives  in  cesspools 
and  decomposing  filth  of  any  kind.  It  is  provided  with  a  long  breath- 
ing tube,  which  is  a  continuation  of  the  abdomen,  and  it  is  commonly 
known  from  this  appendage  as  the  "  Rat-tailed  larva." 

A  common  member  of  this  family  is  a  black  and  yellow  banded 
insect,  much  resembling  a  yellowjacket,  which  may  be  seen  hovering 
motionless  in  the  air  over  flowers  on  a  summer  day,  making  a  sudden 
dart  occasionally  in  one  or  another  direction.  The  larva  of  this  is  pre- 
daceous  on  aphids,  and  is  one  of  the  many  beneficial  insects  to  which 
we  owe  so  much. 

The  larvae  of  the  different  species  of  Syrphus-flies  have  various  feed- 
ing habits;  some,  as  stated  above,  are  predaceous  on  aphids;  some  feed 
on  decaying  animal  and  vegetable  matter;  some  are  found  in  the  nests 
of  ants,  and  others  in  the  nests  of  bumblebees  and  wasps. 

The  Pipuneulidse,  or  big-eyed  flies,  are  remarkable  mainly  for  the 
disproportionate  size  of  their  eyes,  which  seem  to  swell  the  head  beyond 
the  size  of  the  body.  They  frequent  plants  and  are  parasitic  on  bugs. 


92  CALIFORNIA  STATE  COMMISSION  OF  HORTICULTURE. 

The  Phoridse,  or  humpbacked  flies,  is  a  family  of  small  insects,  the 
larvae  of  which  are  parasitic. 

The  Conopidse  is  a  family  of  large-headed  flies,  any  of  which  in  their 
mature  form  resemble  wasps  in  general  appearance,  having  the  abdo- 
men elongated  and  connected  with  the  thorax  by  a  slender  pedicel. 
They  are  common  among  flowers,  and  their  larvae  are  parasitic  on 
bumblebees  and  wasps. 

The  family  (Estridse  consists  of  the  botflies.  The  members  of  this 
family  are  medium  to  large  in  size,  of  heavy  build,  resembling  bees  in 
general  structure,  and  the  family  contains  some  of  the  worst  pests 
which  our  four-footed  animals  have  to  struggle  against.  In  this  family 
is  found  the  botfly  of  the  horse,  the  warble  of  the  ox,  the  sheep  gadfly, 

and  their  kindred,  which,  in  their 
larval  stage,  live  upon  the  intes- 
tines or  muscles  of  quadrupeds. 

The  reproduction  of  these  insects 
is  one  of  the  freaks  of  nature,  and 
is  accomplished  in  the  most  round- 
about  manner.  The  female  of  the 

ir^r     M"*uei  horse  botfly  lays  her  e^s  on  the 

legs  or  other  handy  portions  of  the 
horse,  and  so  well  does  the  animal  know  his  enemy  that  horses  will  run 
in  terror  from  them.  The  eggs  are  small  yellowish  bodies,  furnished 
with  hooks,  by  which  they  are  attached  to  the  hairs  of  the  horse, 
usually  the  lower  portion  of  the  legs.  It  is  wonderful,  too,  with  what 
rapidity  a  fly  will  attach  her  eggs  to  the  selected  spot.  We  have 
watched  them  in  action,  and  seen  them  dart  at  the  spot  and  away 
again,  not  even  resting,  but  in  the  short  contact  an  egg  was  securely 
placed.  The  eggs  are  taken  into  the  mouth  of  the  horse,  which  licks 
itself,  and  the  moisture  and  warmth  cause  them  to  hatch  at  once.  The 
irritation  occasioned  by  them  causes  the  animal  to  swallow  them  and 
then  they  attach  themselves  to  the  coating  of  the  stomach,  where  they 
remain  until  they  have  attained  their  larval  growth,  which  requires 
eight  or  ten  months.  They  are  then  passed,  and  fall  to  the  ground, 
going  through  their  pupa  stage  underground. 

The  ox  warble  is  also  taken  into  the  stomach  of  the  animal,  but 
works  its  way  between  the  muscles  until  it  reaches  the  back,  where,  just 
beneath  the  skin,  it  grows  rapidly  until  it  has  reached  its  full  larval 
growth,  when  it  enlarges  an  air  hole,  which  it  had  already  made  in  the 
skin,  and  passes  out,  dropping  to  the  ground  and  going  through  its 
transformation  underground. 


ENTOMOLOGY    IN    OUTLINE— DIPTERA. 


93 


The  family  Mus- 
cidse  is  the  largest 
of  the  whole  order, 
including  about 
one  third  of  all  the 
species  of  Diptera 
known.  The  com- 
mon house-fly  be- 
longs to  this  family. 
Comstock  sepa- 
rates this  family 
into  two  divisions, 
the  Caly pirate  Mus- 
cidse  and  the  Aca- 
ly  pirate  Muscidae, 
and  under  each  of 
these  divisions 
there  are  several 
subfamilies. 


FIG.  80.    Formia  regina.    A,  larva;  B,  puparium;  C.  imago. 


The  subfamily  Taehininse  is  one  of  the  most  beneficial  of  the  order 
Diptera.  The  subfamily  includes  a  number  of  species,  several  of  which 
are  found  in  California.  In  their  larval  form  they  are  parasitic,  and 


FIG.  81.  Red-tailed  tachina  fly  (Winthemia  U-pmtulatd),  a  parasite  of  the  array- 
worm,  a,  fly,  natural  size;  6,  fly,  enlarged;  c,  army  worm,  natural  size, 
upon  which  eggs  have  been  laid ;  d,  parasitized  army  worms,  enlarged.  (After 
Slingerland.) 

lay, their  eggs  upon  the  larvae  of  other  insects,  largely  on  caterpillars, 
upon  which  the  female  fly  lays  her  eggs.  These  eggs  soon  hatch  out 
small  footless  grubs,  or  maggots,  which  at  once  proceed  to  bore  their  way 


94 


CALIFORNIA  STATE  COMMISSION  OF  HORTICULTURE. 


into  the  body  of  their  host,  where  they  remain  until  they  have  attained 
their  growth.  We  have  often  been  disappointed  when,  after  caring  for 
a  choice  specimen  of  caterpillar,  until  it  passed  into  the  chrysalis  state, 
and  were  watching  anxiously  for  it  to  come  out,  to  have  a  small  hand- 
ful of  Tachnid  flies  reward  us  for  our  pains. 

In  California  one  species  of  Tachininas  is  a  most  effective  check  upon 
the  locust  pest.  This  is  the  Masicera  pachytyli  Sk.,  and  where  there  is 
a  flight  of  grasshoppers  these  flies  will  be  found  in  countless  numbers, 
and  the  grasshopper  which  escapes  them  is  rare.  It  is  the  natural 
enemy  of  the  grasshopper,  feeding  most  voraciously  on  the  adipose 
tissues  of  its  victim,  but  avoiding  the  vital  parts.  It  feeds  in  the 
thorax  and  abdomen,  and  frequently  three  or  four  may  be  found  in  a 
single  grasshopper.  A  grasshopper  infested  by  these  maggots  soon 
shows  signs  of  feebleness,  ceases  feeding,  and  dies  in  a  short  time,  the 
maggots  escaping  often  before  the  death  of  the  host  insect.  The 
maggots,  after  extricating  themselves  from  the  grasshopper,  enter  the 
ground  to  pupate,  and  emerge  in  five  or  six  days  as  perfect  flies. 

There  is  no  more  effective  check  upon  cutworms  and  other  lepidop- 
terous  pests  than  the  Tachina  flies. 

The  subfamilies  Sareophaginse,  the  flesh-flies,  and  Dexiinse,  the 
nimble-flies,  are  of  less  importance  to  us. 

The  subfamily  Museinse,  however,  embracing  the  house-flies,  and 
other  species  equally  obnoxious,  forces  itself  more  upon  our  consider- 
ation. The  house-fly 
(Musca  domestica)  is 
known  by  every  one 
the  world  over.  It  is 
a  highly  sociable  in- 
sect, and  clings  to 
mankind  with  a  te- 
nacity more  to  be 
repudiated  than  ad- 
mired. Its  breeding 
places  are  around 
stables,  and  a  female 
will  lay  from  120  to 
1BO  eggs.  The  larvae 
attain  their  growth  in 
from  five  to  seven 
days,  pass  through 
their  changes  in  an- 
other five  to  seven, 
and  then  make  a  line 
for  our  houses.  Keep- 


FIG.  82.    Screw-worm  fly  (Compsomyia  maceltaria),  enlarged, 
a,  adult  fly;  b,  larva.    (After  Francis.) 


ENTOMOLOGY    IN    OUTLINE  —  DIPTERA. 


95 


ing  the  stables  clean,  and  removing  all  rubbish  from  around  the  house 
will  do  much  to  prevent  them. 

The  stable-fly  (Stomoxys  calcitrans)  resembles  the  house-fly,  but  its 
mouth  parts  are  made  for  biting,  while  the  house-fly  is  a  sucker.  Severe 
bites,  and  sometimes  poisonous  ones,  are  inflicted  by  this  insect,  for 
which  the  house-fly  gets  the  blame. 

The  horn-fly  (Hwmatobia  serrata)  is  another  dipterous  pest  of 
cattle. 

The  screw-worm  (Compsomyia  macellaria),  to  which  we  have  before 
alluded,  belongs  also  in  this  subfamily;  as  does  the  blowfly  (Caliphora 
i-omitnrici).  the  largest  of  the  common  species,  with  a  deep  blue,  almost 
black  body,  always  coming  in  swarms  when  there  is  an  odor  of  cooking 
cabbage  or  decomposing  meat. 

The  subfamily  Anthomyiinse  is  a  very  large  one,  including  the  cab- 
bage-maggot, onion-fly,  and  many  others  which  infest  vegetation. 
Some  of  its  members  are  parasitic  on  other  insects,  and  others  infest 
decaying  vegetation.  Some  of  these  resemble  house-flies,  but  differ 
from  them  in  structure. 

The  second  division  of  the  Muscidse  is  the  Aealyptrate  Museidse,  and 
thi>  includes  the  fruit-flies,  the  dreaded  Tryp.eta  hi  dens  among  others. 
Must    of    the   flies 
belonging     to     the 
subfamily    Trypet- 

inae   are  small,  al-  l^jj^r  J        /[\ 

though    some     of  "2fillfcr      -/•!  \ 

them  are  at  least 
medium  in  size. 
They  are  charac- 
terized by  their  pe- 
culiar wing  mark- 
ings, which  are 
shaded,  mottled, 
banded,  or  striped. 
They  vary  in  color 
from  light  brown 
to  nearly  black,  and  the  family  is  well  represented  in  the  United  States. 
It  must  not  be  supposed  that  because  T.  ludens,  T.pomonella,  and  several 
others  of  our  fruit  pests  belong  to  this  family,  all  are  pests  on  fruit. 
It  is  true  that  most  of  the  fruit-flies  belong  here,  but  a  very  large 
number  of  the  species  live  in  galls  which  they  form  in  the  stems  of  wild 
plants,  and  are  not  noticeably  injurious. 

The  cheese-maggot  (Piophila  casei)  belongs  in  this  group,  as  do  also 
the  vinegar  or  pomace  flies — small,  yellowish  flies,  common  about 
decaying  fruit. 


FIG 


Trypeta  acidusa.    Puparium  at  right,  adult  at  left,  greatly 
enlarged.    (After  Howard.) 


96  CALIFORNIA  STATE  COMMISSION  OF  HORTICULTURE. 

The  family  Hippoboseidse  includes  the  louse-flies.  Some  of  these  are 
winged  and  some  wingless.  They  are  parasitic  upon  birds  and  mam- 
mals. The  best  known  member  of  this  family  is  the  sheep-tick,  a 
wingless  species,  which  lives  upon  sheep. 

The  family  Nyeteribiidse,  or  bat-ticks,  are,  as  their  name  implies, 
parasitic  on  bats.  They,  too,  are  a  wingless  species. 

The  family  Braulidse  includes  the  bee-louse,  a  minute  wingless 
creature,  infesting  the  honey-bee. 

Order  SIPHONAPTERA. 

This  is  an  order  erected  to  take  in  the  fleas.  These  insects  have 
many  peculiarities  in  common  with  flies,  and  at  one  time  were  consid- 
ered as  degraded  Dipterons.  The  order  contains  but  a  single  family, 
Pulieidse.  There  are  a  number  of  species,  however,  afflicting  various 

animals.  The  dog  and  cat 
have  their  special  fleas,  and 
man  another,  the  latter  being 
the  Pulex  irritans,  a  descrip- 
^on  °f  which  is  not  necessary 
for  California  readers. 

The  Chigoe,  a  small  species, 
common  in  warm  climates,  is 
sometimes  a  very  serious  pest. 
The  female  has  a  habit  of 

FIG.  84.  Cat  and  dog  flea  (Ctenocephal as  canis).   A,  larva    burrowing  into   the    flesh,  be- 

Tduitr,2KZCkel  d'Herculais);  *'  adult"   Length  of  tween  the  toes  of  the  natives, 

or  others,  when  opportunity 

allows.  In  this  position,  with  her  abdominal  end  protruding,  she  swells 
with  eggs  to  the  size  of  a  pea,  when  the  eggs  are  obtruded  and  shed  on 
the  ground.  Unless  removed,  these  pests  sometimes  cause  great 
suffering. 

Order   COLEOPTERA. 

(The  Beetles.) 

The  Coleoptera,  or  beetles,  are,  perhaps,  not  so  familiar  to  the  general 
observer  as  the  butterflies  and  moths,  although  they  outnumber  them 
in  species  two  to  one,  for  they  are  generally  obscure  in  their  habits  in 
both  larval  and  adult  stages,  and  when  seen  are  usually  avoided  on 
account  of  their  unfriendly,  or,  in  some  cases,  disagreeable  aspect.  But 
they  are  so  numerous,  over  12,000  species  being  known,  and  so  easily  col- 
lected and  preserved,  that  the  amateur  collector  of  insects  is  attracted 
to  them  nearly  as  much  as  to  the  Lepidoptera. 


ENTOMOLOGY   IX   OUTLINE  —  COLEOPTERA.  97 

Beetles  are  characterized  by  the  possession  of  a  pair  of  horny  wing- 
covers,  called  elytra,  which  meet  in  a  straight  line  down  the  back,  and 
beneath  which  is  a  single  pair  of  membranous  wings.  They  possess 
biting  mouth  parts,  and  the  metamorphosis  is  complete.  The  earwigs 
are  the  only  insects  that  might  be  mistaken  for  beetles,  but  as  they  pos- 
sess a  pair  of  pincers-like  appendages  at  the  end  of  the  body,  they  may 
be  readily  distinguished  from  them. 

The  name  Coleoptera  is  derived  from  the  Greek  coleos,  a  sheath,  and 
pteron,  a  wing.  The  name  refers  to  the  sheath-like  structure  of  the 
elytra,  which  were  formerly  believed  to  be  modified  wings,  but  which  are 
now  known  to  be  homologous  to  the  plates,  or  paraptera,  which  exist 
at  the  bases  of  the  wings  of  the  lower  orders  of  insects.  The  true  wings 
are  membranous,  and  are  efficient  organs  of  flight  in  most  species. 
When  at  rest  they  are  folded  beneath  the  elytra.  In  those  species 
which  have  no  true  wings,  the  elytra  serve  only  as  a  protection  to  the 
soft  abdomen.  The  mouth  parts  are  evenly  proportioned,  no  part  being 
over-developed  at  the  expense  of  others,  as  in  the  Lepidoptera  or 
Hymenoptera.  The  upper  lip,  or  labrum,  is  usually  distinct;  the  upper 
pair  of  jaws,  or  mandibles,  are  strong  and  fitted  for  seizing  or  gnawing; 
the  lower  jaws,  or  maxillae,  are  composed  of  several  distinct  pieces,  and 
bear  prominent  palpi;  the  lower  lip,  or  labium,  is  also  complicated  in 
structure,  and  bears  prominent  palpi.  The  antennae  of  beetles  are 
extremely  varied  in  form,  being  serrate,  clavate,  momliform,  or  irregular, 
as  the  case  may  be.  The  tarsi,  or  feet,  have  from  three  to  five  joints, 
the  last  joint  usually  terminating  in  a  pair  of  claws. 

Since  Coleoptera  possess  no  easy  means  of  identification,  entomol- 
ogists have  had  to  separate  groups  and  species  by  means  of  obscure 
specific  differences  in  the  structure  of  organs  and  parts  of  the  body. 
The  antennae,  mouth  parts,  and  sclerites  or  plates  of  the  body  are  usu- 
ally employed,  but  such  a  mass  of  technical  terminology  has,  of  necessity, 
piled  up  on  this  account  that  the  ordinary  student  of  Coleoptera  is 
much  mystified. 

The  eggs  of  beetles  are  laid  where  the  larvae,  upon  hatching,  will  find 
an  abundance  of  food  suited  to  their  needs.  It  may  be  on  leaves,  twigs, 
decaying  logs,  carrion,  fresh  water,  or  underground.  The  larvae  are 
known  as  grubs,  wireworms,  water-tigers,  and  the  like.  They  usually 
possess  six  thoracic  legs  (some  species  have  more),  biting  mouth  parts, 
and  simple  eyes.  The  larval  life  lasts  from  a  few  weeks  in  some  species 
to  three  years  in  others.  After  several  molts  they  change  into  pupae, 
either  underground  or  in  or  on  the  food,  using  the  last  larval  skin  as  a 
pupa  case,  or  constructing  a  rough  cocoon  of  earth  and  bits  of  wood 
and  vegetable  matter. 

Only  such  of  the  eighty  families  as  possess  especial  interest  or  eco- 
nomic importance  can  be  treated,  even  briefly,  in  a  short  discussion. 

7-E 


98  CALIFORNIA  STATE  COMMISSION  OF  HORTICULTURE. 

The  order  is  divided  into  two  primary  groups  or  suborders,  Coleoptera 
genuina  and  Rhyncophora.  Coleoptera  genuina  includes  the  typical 
beetles,  with  the  mouth  parts  all  present,  and  the  head  not  elongated 
into  a  beak  or  rostrum.  In  the  Rhyncophora,  or  snout  beetles,  the  head 
is  elongated,  the  labrum  is  indistinct,  and  the  palpi  are  reduced  to 
small  processes.  These  two  suborders  are  further  divided  into  sections, 
tribes,  families,  genera,  and  species. 

Suborder  COLEOPTERA  GENUINA.     Section  PENTAMERA. 

The  beetles  in  the  section  Pentamera  all  have  five  tarsal  segments  in 
all  the  feet.  The  Adephaga,  one  of  the  four  tribes  in  this  section,  are 
the  carnivorous  beetles,  and  embrace  four  important  families. 

The  members  of  the  family  Cieindelidse  are  characterized  by  their 
metallic  colors  with  light  markings  on  the  wing-covers,  their  graceful 
forms,  rapidity  of  movement,  and  alert  habits.  They  are  commonly 
seen  running  and  flying  swiftly  about  sandy,  sunny 
places.  Both  larvae  and  adults  are  noted  for  their 
rapacity  and  ferocity,  and  these  traits,  combined  with 
the  curious  markings  on  the  elytra,  have  given  them  the 
name  of  tiger-beetles.  The  larvae  of  tiger-beetles  are 
repulsive  in  appearance,  possessing  large  heads,  which 
are  bent  at  right  angles  downwards  from  the  body  and 
furnished  with  immense  jaws  and  sprawling  legs.  They 
live  in  the  sand  in  vertical  burrows  several  inches  deep, 
and  in  these  they  lie  in  wait  ready  to  grasp  any  unwary 

lnS6Ct    tlmt    COmeS    within     their    reach'       T°    keeP    them- 

selves  from  being  pulled  out  by  a  larger  insect  than 
themselves,  they  possess  two  strong  small  hooks  on  the  back  of  the  fifth 
body  segment.  The  pupal  stage  is  passed  in  the  burrow,  also  in  the 
last  larval  skin.  The  tiger-beetles,  especially  the  larvse,  are  beneficial 
to  the  fruit-grower,  as  they  devour  quantities  of  injurious  caterpillars. 

The  Carabidse  are  a  family  of  flat,  smooth  beetles,  usually  shining 
black,  greenish  or  brownish  in  color,  with  small  heads,  prominent 
slender  antennae,  sharp  mandibles,  clubbed  antennae  and  conspicuous 
eyes.  They  are  active  and  swift  runners,  ready  to  bite  when  caught. 
Most  of  them  hide  by  day  under  boards,  stones  and  the  like,  seldom 
taking  to  flight,  and  hunting  their  prey  at  night.  The  larvae  of  many 
species  live  in  the  ground,  where  they  destroy  quantities  of  burrowing 
insects.  The  pupal  stage  is  passed  in  rough  cells  in  the  earth,  the 
emerging  adults  pushing  their  way  to  the  surface. 

The  "searcher"  or  "caterpillar  hunter,"  Calasoma  scrutator,  is  one  of 
the  most  familiar  and  beneficial  of  the  Carabids.  It  is  especially 


ENTOMOLOGY  IN   OUTLINE  —  COLEOPTER A.  99 

destructive  to  tent-caterpillars,  climbing  the  trees  at  night  and  feeding 
on  them.  Other  species  are  predaceous  on  cankerworms  and  cutworms. 
The  bombardier-beetles  (genus  Bruchina)  possess  an  organ  at  the 
tip  of  the  abdomen  by  which  when  disturbed  they  spurt  out,  "with  a 
popping  sound  and  puff  of  smoke,"  an  ill-smelling,  ¥ 

acrid  fluid.     Harpalus  is  a  large  genus,  any  species  V 

of  which  destroys  large  numbers  of  the  larvae  of  the 
codling-moth  and  plum-curculios. 

The  Dytiseidse  are  a  family  of  carnivorous  water- 
beetles  of  some  three  hundred  species,  common  in  all 
our  streams  and  ponds,  many  of  them  from  one  to 
two  inches  long  and  quite  conspicuous.  They 
possess  a  single  pair  of  eyes,  long,  slender  antennae,  FIG 
are  flatly  convex  in  shape  and  brown  or  black  in 
color;  the  swimming  hind  legs  are  long,  broad,  and  heavily  fringed 
with  hairs,  and  their  air  supply  under  water  is  carried  in  a  bubble 
under  the  elytra,  held  in  by  means  of  fine  hairs.  The  larvae  are  long 
and  slender,  and  on  account  of  their  voracity  are  called  water-tigers. 
They  breathe  through  a  pair  of  spiracles  at  the  top  of  the  body,  coming 
to  the  surface  frequently  for  the  purpose.  The  pupal  stage  is  passed  in 
a  rough  cocoon  in  the  bank  of  the  stream  or  pond. 

The  Gyrinidse,  or  whirligigs,  are  the  small,  metallic,  steely  black 
beetles  seen  swimming  in  circles  on  the  surface  of  ponds  and  still  pools. 
They  are  peculiarly  characterized  by  the  possession  of  compound  eyes- 
on  each  side  of  the  head,  which  are  distinctly  divided  into  two  parts  by 
the  sharp  lateral  margins  of  the  head.  They  are  of  slight  economic 
value,  though  destroying  some  mosquito  larvae. 


Tribe  Clavieornia. 

This  tribe  comprises  those  beetles  which  have  clubbed  antennae. 

The  family  Hydrophilidse  are  the  "  water-scavengers,"  usually  black 
in  color,  though  some  have  orange  or  red  markings  along  the  margins, 
convex  above,  flattened  below,  smooth  and  polished,  and  possessing 
short  antennae,  which  are  clavate  or  clubbed.  Certain  of  the  smaller 
species  are  small,  and  have  a  rough  body  wall,  and  crawl  on  the  bottom 
of  ponds  and  streams  instead  of  swimming,  and  still  others  are  land 
forms.  One  species,  Hydrophilus  triangularis,  is  often  seen  flying  about 
electric  lights.  All  live  on  decaying  matter,  but  are  of  slight  economic 
importance. 


100 


CALIFORNIA  STATE  COMMISSION  OF  HORTICULTURE. 


FIG.  87.    Hydrophilus  triangularis.    Natural  size. 

The  family  Staphylinidae,  or  rove-beetle  family,  is  a  large  and  widely 
distributed  group,  its  members  being  characterized  by  the  possession  of 
short,  leathery  wing-covers,  which  leave  the  abdomen  exposed.  They 
live  in  decaying  animal  or  vegetable  matter,  excrement,  or  in  flowers. 
In  the  spring,  certain  tiny  flower-inhabiting  forms  take 
to  flight  in  great  swarms,  get  in  the  eyes  of  travelers 
and  become  very  annoying  on  account  of  their  acrid 
body-fluids. 


FIG.  88.  Rove- 
beetle  (Staphi- 
linid  sp.). 


The  Silphidse,  or  "burying-beetle"  family,  are  found 
on  carrion  and  in  fungi.  The  antennae  are  terminated 
by  a  short  spherical  club,  in  which  are  the  very  sensi- 
tive organs  of  smell,  and  the  wing-covers  are  slightly 
shortened.  The  thick-bodied  beetles,  black  marked  with 

red,  and  with  the  habit  of  digging  under  small  animals  until  they  are 

buried,  belong  to  the  genus  Necrophorus,  and  are  the  burying-beetles 

proper. 

The  genus  Silpha,  or  roving  carrion-beetles,  are  short,  broad,  flat, 

black  in  color,  and  have  longitudinally  grooved  elytra. 

The  Cueujidse  are  a  family  of  small  beetles,  light  brown  in  color,  flat 
and  narrow  in  shape,  well  fitted  for  their  habitat  under  the  bark  of 
trees.  One  species,  Silvanus  surnamensis,  the  saw-toothed  grain-beetle, 
infests  stored  grain  and  dried  food  products  of  all  sorts. 

The  Dermestidse  are  the  beetles  commonly  known  as  the  buffalo- 
moths  and  carpet-beetles.  They  are  small,  stout,  oval  forms  with  weak 
legs,  and  feed  in  all  stages  on  stored  animal  and  vegetable  products, 
dried  insect  specimens,  furs,  feathers,  stuffed  animals,  and  on  cheese 


ENTOMOLOGY  IN   OUTLINE  — COLEGPTEP  A.  _  101 

and  dried  meats.  Among  the  worst  pests  in  this  family  are  Anthrenus 
scrophularixj  the  carpet-beetles, known  in  the  larval  stage  as  the  buffalo- 
moth;  A.  varius  and  A.  museorum,  the  museum  pests;  and  Dermestes 
lardarius,  the  larder-beetles. 

The  family  Parnidse  are  generally  known  as  "water-pennies,"  on 
account  of  the  flat,  crustacean-like  larvae,  which  cling  to  stones.  The 
adults  are  non-swimming,  but  crawl  about  on  submerged  objects. 


Tribe  Serrieornia. 

This  tribe  is  composed  of  beetles  with  slender,  serrated,  saw-toothed 
antennae. 

The  Buprestidse  is  an  important  Serricorn  family,  both  economically 
and  numerically,  its  members  being  commonly  known  as  the  metallic 
wood-borers.  These  beetles  have  a  compact,  elongate  body,  short,  ser- 
rate antennae;  the  head  is  deeply  inserted  in  the 
prothorax,  and  they  are  always  metallic  and  iri- 
descent in  their  coloration.  Their  larvae  are  flat- 
headed,  legless,  tadpole-shaped  wood-borers,  making 
broad,  shallow  galleries  and  chambers  under  the 
bark  of  trees. 

The  apple-tree  borer  (Chrysobothris  femorala)  is 
a  greenish-black  beetle,  half  an  inch  long,  which 
lays  its  eggs  on  the  bark  of  apple,  peach,  plum,  and  several  forest  trees. 
The  newly  hatched  larvae  bore  through  the  bark  to  the  sapwood,  where 
they  burrow  around  and  often  girdle  the  tree.  The  Sinuate  pear-borer 
is  another  very  serious  pest  in  the  Eastern  States. 

The  Elateridse  resemble  the  Buprestidae  in  shape,  but  their  lack  of 
metallic  colors,  being  usually  blackish,  brownish,  or  grayish,  and  the 


FIG.  89.  Flat-headed  ap- 
ple-tree borer  (Chryso- 
bothris femorata). 


FIG.  90.    Click-beetles  (Elatrids) 
and  larva  (wireworm). 


FIG  91.  Firefly  (Photinus  pyralis).  a, larva;  6,  pupa 
in  underground  cell;  c,  adult;  d-f,  enlarged  de- 
tails of  larva. 


backward  projecting  angles  of  the  prothorax,  readily  distinguish  them 
from  that  family.  On  account  of  their  power  of  springing  up  in  the 
air  when  laid  down  backwards,  they  are  called  click-beetles.  The  larvae 
are  the  "wireworms,"  and  are  long,  slender,  slightly  flattened,  and 


102  CALIFORNIA  STATE  COMMISSION  OF  HORTICULTURE. 

leathery  in  texture.  The  larvae  live  underground,  and  require  two  or 
three  years  to  complete  their  growth.  They  are  very  destructive  to 
sowed  grain,  root  crops,  meadow  land  and  strawberries. 

The  insects  commonly  called  fireflies  are  not  flies  at  all,  but  beetles 
belonging  to  the  family  Lampyridse.  Only  a  few  species  are  luminous, 
however,  and  these  belong  mainly  to  the  genus  Photinus.  (See  Fig.  91.) 

The  soldier-bugs  are  diurnal  members  of  this  family,  of  the  genera 
Chauliognathus  and  Telephorus.  T.  bilineatus  does  much  good  in  the 
Eastern  States,  as  it  eats  quantities  of  plum-curculio  larvae. 

The  family  Cleridse  are  called  "checker-beetles,"  or  "flower-beetles," 
from  the  conspicuous  black,  white  or  red  checkered  markings  on  the 
body,  and  from  their  habit  of  living  on  flowers.  The  antennae  are 
serrate  or  slightly  clubbed,  and  from  the  slenderness  of  the  body  and 
their  habits  of  running  swiftly  about  they  look  decidedly  ant-like. 
With  one  exception,  those  of  the  genus  Necrobia,the  larvae  are  all  pred- 
atory on  the  larvae  of  wood-boring  insects  and  in  bees'  nests.  Necrobia 
rufipes,  the  red-legged  ham-beetle,  lives  on  ham  and  other  stored  animal 
products;  but,  on  the  whole,  the  family  is  a  very  useful  one. 

The  Ptinidse  are  nearly  all  injurious  forms,  living  on  dried  vegetable 
matter.  They  are  small  brownish  beetles,  with  strange  tastes  in  the 
selection  of  foods.  The  drugstore-beetle  (Sitrodrepa  panicea)  attacks 
all  sorts  of  drugs  and  herbs,  many  of  them  noxious  and  poisonous  to 
us.  Lasioderma  serricornea  lives  on  tobacco  in  any  form,  and  is  called 
the  cigarette-beetle.  Others  are  destructive  to  books  and  paper,  or  are 
borers,  such  as  the  apple-twig  borer.  Certain  species,  belonging  mainly 
to  the  genus  Aniobium,  have  gained  the  name  of  "death  watches,"  on 
account  of  their  habit  of  rapping  their  heads  against  wood  or  some  hard 
object. 

Tribe  Lamellicornia. 
This  tribe  contains  two  families,  the  Lucanidae  and  the  Scarabaeidae. 

The  Lucanidae  are  rather  rare,  curiously  formed  beetles,  with 
elbowed,  clubbed  antennae,  and  large,  often  branched  mandibles.  From 
the  latter  character  they  have  received  the  name  of  stag-beetles.  The 
larvae  are  white  grubs  living  in  decaying  wood,  while  the  adults  live 
upon  honey-dew,  and  on  sap  which  flows  from  woun4s  in  trees. 

The  Searabseidse  is,  numerically,  a  very  large  family,  and  its  num- 
bers vary  greatly  in  shape,  size,  and  feeding  habits.  They  all  have 
antennae  with  a  club  at  the  tip  composed  of  from  three  to  seven  lamellae, 
and  the  fore  tarsi  are  formed  for  digging.  The  larvae  are  white  grubs, 
which  live  in  decaying  vegetation  or  excrement,  or  in  the  ground  on 


ENTOMOLOGY  IN   OUTLINE  —  COLEOPTERA. 


103 


the  roots  of  plants.  There  are 
two  groups  in  this  family :  the 
scavengers,  of  which  the  tum- 
ble-bugs are  examples,  and 
the  leaf-chafers,  represented 
by  the  "May-beetles"  and 
"June-beetles."  Macrodacty- 
los  subspinosus,  the  rose-chafer, 
a  yellowish  beetle  with  pale 
red  legs,  does  great  damage  to 
roses  and  grapes  and  other 
flowers  and  fruits. 

The  genus  Lachnosterna 
contains  the  "June-beetles," 
or  u  bugs,"  from  whose  attacks 
lawns  and  root-crops  surfer. 

The  rhinoceros-beetles  be- 
long to  the  genus  Dynaste,  and  are  so  named  on  account  of  large  horns 
on  the  head,  and  another  larger  horn,  accompanied  by  two  smaller  ones, 
projecting  forward  from  the  prothorax. 

There  are  several  genera  of  flower-beetles,  one  of  the  com- 
moner forms  being  the  "bumble  flower-beetle,"  Uphoria 
inda.  It  is  yellowish  brown  and  hairy,  and  in  early  spring 
is  seen  flying  near  the  ground  with  a  loud  buzzing  noise. 


FIG.  92.  Grapevine  beetle  (Pelidnota  punctata). 
a,  larva ;  6,  pupa ;  c,  beetle ;  d,  antennae ;  /,  leg, 
enlarged. 


Section  TETRAMERA  or  PHYTOPHAGA. 


FIG.  93.  Rose- 
chafer  (J!fa- 
crodactylos 
subspinosus). 


This  section  comprises  those    beetles  which,  apparently,  have   four 
segmented  tarsi,  the  fourth  segment  being  so  fixed  with  the  third  as  to 

be  indistinguishable.  There 
are  four  families  under  this 
section,  and  among  them  are 
very  many  of  our  worst  crop 
enemies. 

The  family  Chrysomelidse 
is  one  of  the  largest  of  the 
beetle  families  and  probably 
contains  more  injurious  forms 
than  any  other.  They  are 
generally  small,  oval  forms, 
strongly  convex  above,  pos- 
sessing small  heads  and  widely 
separated  antenna?.  The 
adults,  when  disturbed,  have 
the  habit  of  folding  up  the  legs  and  dropping  inert  to  the  ground. 


June-bug  or  white  grub. 
3-4,  adults. 


1,  pupa;  2,  larva; 


104 


CALIFORNIA  STATE  COMMISSION  OF  HORTICULTURE. 


The  Colorado  potato-beetle,  asparagus-beetle,  and  elm-leaf  beetle  are 
some  very  destructive  species  which  have  not  yet  reached  California. 

Diabrotica  we  have  in  plenty, 
however;  D.  vittata,  the 
cucumber-beetle,  a  greenish 
yellow  form  with  two  black 
stripes  on  each  wing-cover; 
D.  soror,  the  flower-beetle,  a 
12-spotted  greenish  form,  be- 
ing familiar  pests.  Chrysochus 
cobaltinus,  a  large,  bright  blue 
beetle,  is  a  noticeable  Chryso- 
melid,  and  the  smaller,  though 
not  less  destructive,  flea- 
beetles  belong  here  also.  Hal- 
tica  chalybeus,  a  blue  grape- 
feeding  flea-beetle,  and  the 
black  cucumber  flea-beetle 

FIG.95.    Grapevine  flea-beetle  (Haltica  chalybeus).         (C  repidodera   CUCUmeris), 

feeding  on  cucurbits,  represent  these  destructive  insects.     Lena  calif or- 
nica  is  a  small  blue  beetle  found  on  dock,  and  Lena  scripta  on  willow. 

The  black-legged  tortoise-beetle  (Cassida  nigripes)  represents  a  genus 
of  bright  golden-colored  Chrysomelids  of  a  peculiar  shape,  which  are 
most  often  found  feeding  on  the  leaves 
of  the  sweet  potato. 


FIG.  96.  Black- 
legged  tortoise- 
beetle  (Cassida 
nigripes). 


FIG.  97.     Bean-weevil 
(Bruchus  obtectus). 


The  family  Bruehidse  is  small,  and 
consists  of  beetles  which  are  short  and 
chunky,  with  the  elytra  cut  off  be- 
hind, with  small  head,  and  thighs 
swollen  as  if  from  jumping,  and  which 
in  all  stages  live  on  stored  seeds. 

Bruchus  pisi,  commonly  known  as  the  pea-weevil,  and  B.  obtectus,  the 

bean-weevil,  are  cosmopolitan  species. 

The  Cepambyeidae  have  antennae  as  long  or  longer  than  the  body, 
and  are  primarily  a  wood-boring  family,  being  commonly  called  the 
long-horned  wood-borers.  The  bodies  of  these  beetles  are  usually  cylin- 
drical and  elongate,  though  some  are  flattened,  and  their  mandibles  are 
stout  and  sharp-pointed.  The  larvae  are  known  as  the  round-headed 
borers,  to  distinguish  them  from  the  flat-headed  Buprestids.  Over  600 
species  are  known,  most  of  them  living  in  dead  or  dying  wood,  although 
some  attack  healthy  tissue. 


ENTOMOLOGY    IX    OUTLINE  —  COLEOPTERA. 


105 


The  round-headed  apple-tree  borer  (Saperda  Candida)  is  a  pale-brown 
beetle,  with  two  broad  whitish  longitudinal  stripes.  The  larval  life  is 
three  years,  the 
first  part  being 
spent  in  the  sap- 
wood  and  the 
later,  and  pupal 
stages,  in 
heartwood. 
"  primers'' 


FIG.  98. 


Round-headed  apple-tree  borer  (Saperda  Candida), 
a,  larva;  b,  pupa;  c,  imago 


the 
The 
are 

species  living  in 
and  eating  out 
the  hearts  of 

twigs  of  maple,  oak,  apple,  pear,  plum,  and  other  trees,  so  that  the  wind 
blows  them  to  the  ground. 

Our  great  sugar  and  yellow  pines  are  attacked  by  a  large  Cerambycid, 
Ergates  spiculatus.  The  genus  Prionus  has  some  large  species,  the 

larvae  of  which  are  two  and  one  half  to  three 
inches  long  and  which  live  in  the  roots  of 
apple  and  cherry  trees,  and  of  grape  and  black- 
berry vines. 

'Section  TRIMERA. 

This  section  contains  only  one  family,  the 
all-important  beneficial  one,  the  Coeeinellidse, 
or  ladybirds.  They  are  small,  hemispherical 
beetles,  usually  red  or  yellow  with  black 
spots,  or  black  with  red  or  yellow  spots.  The 
tarsi  have  only  three  joints,  so  that  if  confused 
with  certain  Chrysomelids,  as  they  sometimes 
are,  this  character  serves  to  readily  distin- 
guish them.  With  one  exception,  the  genus 
Epilachna,  they  are  all  predatory,  both  larvae  and  adults,  on  plant- 
lice,  scale  insects,  and  other  soft-bodied  plant-feeding  insects.  The 
larvae  are  slender  and  fusiform  in  shape,  with  roughened  spiny  bodies, 
often  prettily  marked  with  blue,  black,  and  orange. 

Hippodamia  convergens  is  a  very  common  native  form,  feeding  prin- 
cipally on  plant-lice  (aphids).  It  is  yellowish  red  in  color,  with  six 
black  spots  on  each  wing-cover.  Coccinella  calif ornica  is  a  similar  form, 
but  more  rounded  and  lacking  the  spots.  C.  sanguinea  is  a  small, 
blood-red  form.  C.  abdofninalis  is  the  ashy  gray  ladybird  with  seven 
small  black  spots  on  the  thorax  and  eight  on  each  wing-cover.  Chilo- 
corus  bii-ulnerus,  the  "twice-stabbed,"  is  a  large  black  ladybird,  with  a 
large  red  spot  on  each  wing-cover,  very  destructive  to  the  armored 


FIG.  99.     California   pine-borer 
(Pnonu?  californica). 


106 


CALIFORNIA  STATE  COMMISSION  OF  HORTICULTURE. 


scales.  Coccinella  oculata  is  a  still  larger  form  often  taken  for  the 
"twice-stabbed"  ladybird.  Exochomus  pilatei,  "Pilate's  ladybird,"  also 
resembles  the  "twice-stabbed,"  but  the  under  side  of  the  abdomen  is 
black  instead  of  red.  It  feeds  on  black  scale,  but  does  not  increase 
rapidly.  Psyllobora  £0-maculata,  the  "20-spotted  ladybird,"  is  a  com- 
mon species,  feeding  on  young  scale  and  the  red  spider. 

Of  the  ladybirds  introduced  by  the  State  Commission  of  Horticulture, 
Vedalia  cardinalis,  Rhizobius  ventralis,  R.  twoombeze,  Novius  koebelei, 

Orcus  chalybeus,  Cryptolse- 
mus  montrouzieri,  Scymnus 
vagans,  S.marginicola,  Rhizo- 
bius debilis,  Rhizobius  lopan- 
tha,  and  Hyperaspis  lateralis 
have  proved  the  most  suc- 
cessful. Vedalia  cardinalis 
and  Novius  koebelei  have  com- 
pletely subjugated  the  cot- 
tony-cushion scale.  Orcus 
chalybeus  is  effective  against 
the  yellow  scale.  Rhizobius  ventralis  is  a  very  useful  destroyer  of  the 
black  scale.  Scymnus  vagans  is  an  enemy  of  the  red  spider.  Rhizobius 
lopantha  makes  some  headway  against  the  purple  scale,  and  Cryptolssmus 
m.ontrouzieri  cleans  up  the  mealy-bugs  in  greenhouses.  The  other 
species  are  general  feeders. 

If  it  were  not  for  these  industrious  enemies  of  our  fruit  and  vine 
pests,  California  would  be  far  from  ranking  i^o-day  the  chief  fruit- 
producing  State  of  the  Union. 


FIG.  100.    Novius  koebelei. 


Section  HETEROMERA. 

This  section  is  a  rather  miscellaneous  lot  of  beetles,  including  several 
small  obscure  families,  as  well  as  two  large  ones.  All  those  beetles 
which  have  the  front  and  middle  feet  with  five  tarsal  segments  and 
the  hind  feet  with  four  are  included  in  it. 

The  family  Tenebrionidse  are  the  "darkling  beetles."  They  are  usu- 
ally dark  brown  or  black  in  color,  oblong  or  oval  in  shape,  have  the 
head  more  or  less  inserted  in  the  prothorax,  and,  on  account  of  their 
long  legs,  are  very  awkward  in  their  movements.  Both  adults  and 
larvae  are  scavengers,  the  latter  much  resembling  wireworms  in  appear- 
ance. The  common  pinch-bug,  Eleodes  sp.,  which  when  disturbed 
stands  on  its  head  and  emits  an  ill-smelling  fluid,  is  a  familiar  type. 
The  meal-worm  beetle  (Tenebrio  molitor),  bred  by  bird  fanciers  for 
food,  and  Tenebrio  obscurus,  found  about  stored  grain  products,  are 
cosmopolitan  species. 


ENTOMOLOGY  IN   OUTLINE  —  COLEOPTER A. 


107 


The  family  Meloidse  are  called  blister-beetles,  because  their  bodies 
when  dried  and  pulverized  are  used  therapeutically  as  blisters.  In  the 
adult  stage  they  feed  on  plant  tissue,  and  are  sometimes 
injurious.  In  the  larval  stage  many  are,  however,  mark- 
edly beneficial,  such  as  the  larva?  of  Epicauta  vittata, 
which  live  on  the  egg  pods  of  grasshoppers.  The  life 
cycle  of  many  species  has  reached  a  highly  specialized 
development  and  their  study  is  exceedingly  interesting. 


The  Stylopidae  is  an  obscure  family,  most  of  its  forms 
being  parasites  on  wasps. 

Suborder  RHYNCOPHORA. 


FIG.  101.  Striped 
blister  -beetle 
(Cantharis  vit- 
tata). 


The  suborder  Rhyncophora,  or  snout-beetles,  consists  of  beetles 
characterized  by  the  peculiar  prolongation  of  the  front  of  the  head  into 
a  beak  or  snout,  at  the  end  of  which  the 
mouth  parts  are  situated.  The  curculios, 
bill-bugs,  and  most  of  the  weevils  belong 

to  this   suborder,  and   are 

great  pests,  living  as  they 

do    on    vegetable    matter, 

stored  products,  and   the 

like. 


FIG.  102.  Fuller's 
rose  -  beetle 
(Aramigus  ful- 
leri). 


FIG.  103.  Plum  curculio  (Conotrachelus 
nenuphar),  a,  larva;  b,  pupa;  c, 
adult ;  d,  curculio  at  work. 


The  family  Otiorhynehi- 

dse   are   the  beetles  which 

have  a  scar  on  the  front  of 

the  upper  side  of  each  man- 
dible.   Fuller's  rose-beetle,  a  species  attacking  roses  and  orange  trees,  is 
a  familiar  type. 

The  family  Cupeulionidse  lack  the  scar,  and  are  the  typical  curculios 
and  weevils.  The  cotton-boll  weevil,  strawberry  weevil,  and  the  plum- 
curculio  are  well-known  pests  belonging  to  this  family. 

The  Calandpidae  include  the  bill-bugs  and  rice  and 
granary  weevils.  The  latter  two  forms,  Calandria  oryzea 
and  C.  granaria,  are  world-wide  in  distribution  and  do 
immense  damage  to  stored  grain. 

FIG.  104.  Pine-  The  SeolytidsB  are  the  engraver-beetles.  According  to 
Pinchot,  the  annual  losses  caused  by  these  insects  total 
nearly  $100,000,000.  The  Monterey  pines  of  California 

are  attacked  by  two  species,  Dendroctonus  valens  and  Tomicus  plasto- 

graphus,  to  such  an  extent  that  entire  forests  have  been  killed  by  them. 

Others,  such  as  the  fruit-bark  beetle,  attack  and  kill  peach  and  plum  trees. 


108  CALIFORNIA  STATE  COMMISSION  OF  HORTICULTURE. 

Order  HYMENOPTERA. 

(Bees,  Wasps,  Ants,  Saw-flies,  etc.) 

This,  of  all  the  orders,  is  the  one  which  may  be  said  to  be  wholly 
beneficial  to  man,  for  while,  as  there  is  a  black  sheep  in  every  flock, 
there  are  injurious  species  in  the  Hymenoptera,  they  are  so  largely  the 
exception  to  the  rule  that  we  may  say  that  the  order  Hymenoptera  is 
the  one  wholly  beneficial  order  of  insects.  In  this  order  we  find  the 
several  species  of  honey-bees,  which  supply  us  with  honey  and  wax;  an 
immense  number  of  parasitic  insects,  which  keep  down  any  redundancy 
on  the  part  of  the  injurious  species;  and  the  ants,  which  act  as  scav- 
engers. The  whole  of  the  wasp  family  are  beneficial,  for,  in  providing 
for  their  young,  the  larger  members  stuff  their  cells  with  spiders,  cater- 
pillars, and-  other  insects,  and  they  are  all  predaceous  in  some  form. 
It  is  in  this  order,  too,  that  we  find  the  highest  development  of  the 
social  instinct,  for  many  of  the  species  are  so  constituted  that  they  can 
not  exist  except  in  communities,  and  in  these  communities  we  find  the 
most  perfect  system  of  division  of  labor  imaginable.  With  the  social 
bees,  for  instance,  we  have  one  mother  bee,  whose  sole  duty  is  to  supply 
the  eggs  from  which  the  stock  of  workers  is  to  be  kept  up;  the  drones, 
or  males,  whose  sole  duty  is  to  act  as  fathers  of  the  hive;  the  third 
class  are  the  workers,  and  these  are  again  divided  into  outside  workers, 
inside  guards,  nurses,  and  other  classes,  each  of  which  has  its  special 
duties  to  perform,  and  upon  the  proper  performance  of  which  the  wel- 
fare of  the  whole  community  depends — and  they  never  fail  in  their 
duty.  In  this  order,  too,  we  find  the  only  class  of  insects  which  care 
for  their  young.  In  all  others  the  eggs  are  laid  as  it  happens.  Usually 
instinct  directs  the  female  to  choose  a  position  which  will  supply  food 
for  the  young  when  hatched,  but,  this  done,  she  is  through  with  them 
and  gives  them  no  more  care.  But  in  this  order  we  have  species  which 
diligently  watch  over  the  eggs,  take  charge  of  the  young  when  hatched, 
attend  to  them,  feed  them  with  proper  food,  and  watch  over  them  in 
every  stage  of  their  growth  until  they  have  passed  through  all  the 
changes,  entered  the  ranks  of  the  mature  workers  and  are  ready,  in 
their  turn,  to  perform  the  same  duties  for  their  successors. 

The  name  Hymenoptera  is  compounded  of  two  Greek  words,  hymen, 
membrane,  and  pteron,  wing.  The  name  is  not  altogether  distinctive, 
however,  as  all  insects  possessing  membranous  wings  are  not  members 
of  this  order,  but  all  members  of  this  order  have  four  membranous 
wings.  A  peculiarity  of  this  order  is  that  the  hinder  pair  of  wings  are 
provided  with  a  series  of  hooks,  with  which  they  catch  the  fore  wings, 
and  thus  the  two  pairs  are  connected  closely  together.  Another  feature 
is  that  while  in  all  other  insects  the  mouth  parts  are  made  for  either 
biting  or  sucking,  in  this  order  they  are  so  arranged  as  to  be  of  use  for 
both  purposes. 


ENTOMOLOGY    IN    OUTLINE  — HYMENOPTER A  109 

The  three  divisions  of  the  body  are  well  denned.  The  head  is,  in 
many  species,  movable  on  the  thorax,  while  the  thorax  is  sharply 
divided  from  the  abdomen,  in  some  cases,  as  in  the  wasps,  being  joined 
by  a  mere  thread-like  process. 

The  metamorphosis  of  the  Hymenoptera  is  complete.  The  eggs  are 
not  remarkable  for  either  form  or  color,  and  are  usually  somewhat 
oblong.  They  are  laid  in  various  positions,  according  to  species,  in 
some  cases  being  deposited  in  the  bottom  of  cells  prepared  to  receive 
them;  in  others,  as  in  the  parasitic  species,  being  attached  to  or  placed 
in  the  body  of  their  victims.  In  all,  except  the  two  lower  families,  the 
larvae  are  maggot-like  creatures,  footless,  and  incapable  of  extended 
motion,  and,  in  many  cases,  wholly  dependent  for  their  existence  upon 
the  care  of  the  adults. 

This  order  is  divided  into  two  suborders,  the  Terebrantia  and  the 
Aculeata.  The  former  comprises  a  number  of  parasitic  insects,  as  the 
ichneumons,  braconids,  chalcids,  etc.;  the  gall-flies,  saw-flies,  etc.;  while 
the  latter  includes  the  stinging  forms,  as  bees,  wasps,  and  ants. 

Suborder  TEREBRANTIA. 

In  the  modern  system  of  classification  it  has  become  the  rule  to  com- 
mence with  the  lower  forms  and  work  upward  to  the  higher,  and,  for 
this  reason,  the  Hymenoptera,  being  recognized  as  the  highest  devel- 
oped of  any  of  the  members  of  the  insect  world,  is  placed  at  the  top  of 
the  list.  In  this  arrangement  the  various  orders  and  families  may  be 
compared  to  a  pyramid,  in  which  the  less  specialized,  lower,  and  baser 
kinds  form  the  foundation,  and  in  which  there  is  a  constant  ascent 
until  the  capstone  is  reached,  and,  in  this  case,  this  is  the  higher  order 
of  Hymenoptera.  So,  in  accordance  with  this  plan,  the  suborder 
Terebrantia,  which  is  the  less  specialized  of  the  two  suborders,  and 
contains  the  lower  forms  of  the  order,  takes  its  place  first  in  our  con- 
sideration, and  in  this  the  lower  families  are  first  noticed. 

Comstock  gives  us  the  following  synopsis  of  the  suborder  Terebrantia : 

THE  BopiNG  HYMENOPTERA.     Suborder  Terebrantia. 

The  Plant-eating  Hymenoptera. 

The  Saw-flies.     Family  Tenthredinidae. 

The  Horn-tails.  Family  Siricidae. 
The  Gall-inhabiting  Hymenoptera. 

The  Gall-flies.  Family  Cynipidse. 
The  Parasitic  Hymenoptera. 

The  Trigonalids.     Family  Trigonalidae. 

The  Ichneumon-flies.     Family  Ichneumonidae. 

The  Stephanids.     Family  Stephanidae. 

The  Braconids.     Family  Braconidse. 

The  Ensign-flies.     Family  Evaniidaa. 

The  Chalcid-flies.     Family  Chalcididae. 

The  Proctotrupids.     Family  Proctotrupidaa. 


110 


CALIFORNIA  STATE  COMMISSION  OF  HORTICULTURE. 


Family  Tenthredinidse  (Saw-flies).  In  this  family  the  females  are 
provided  with  a  pair  of  saws,  which  are  concealed  in  a  cavity  of  the 
abdomen  when  not  in  use.  With  these  she  cuts  a  slit  in  the  leaves  or 

stems  of  plants  upon  which  she  lay 
her  eggs,  and  it  is  this  fact  which  gives 
its  common  name  to  this  family.  The 

[^       \       ^^JK^x^  larvae  are  small,  slimy-looking  insects, 

somewhat  resembling  caterpillars,  but 

\C  ^  \    \  \Cv>^\  they  have  from  twelve  to  sixteen  pro- 

legs,  while  caterpillars,  with  one  ex- 
ception, have  but  ten.  They  are  a 

7)  £P^    y '*  I       XV")          serious  pest  upon  plants  infested  by 

them,   and  examples   of   this   family 


FIG.  105.  Corn  saw-fly  (Cephus  pygmxus). 
a,  larva ;  b,  larva,  enlarged ;  c,  larva  in 
wheat  stalk;  d,  frass;  e,  adult  female; 
/,  its  European  parasite  (Pachyonerus 
calcitrator).  (From  "Insect  Life.") 


FIG.  106.    Currant- worm  (Pristophora  grossulairse) 


may  be  instanced  in  our  common  cherry-slug  (Eriocampa  cerasi)  (which 
also  infests  the  pear),  the  rose-slug,  and  the  currant- worm. 

Family  Sirieidse  (Horn-tails).  This  family  is  closely  connected  with 
the  foregoing  family,  but  differs  from  it  in  the  shape  and  uses  of 
the  ovipositor.  Instead  of  being  a  sawing  instrument,  as  in  the 
former,  it  is  a  very 
complicated  and 
effective  boring 
tool,  by  means  of 
which  the  female 
can  drill  a  hole  in 
the  hardest  wood, 
in  which  she  deposits  her  egg.  The  habits  of  the  larvae  are  also  very 
different,  those  of  the  horn-tails  being  boring  insects,  and  they  some- 
times do  great  damage  to  forest  timber  and  shade  trees.  Members  of 
this  family  are  of  large  size,  the  pigeon  tremex  (Tremex  columba), 
which  is  not  uncommon  in  our  State,  being  as  large  around  as  a  pencil, 
and  sometimes  an  inch  and  a  half  in  length. 

These  two  families  are  practically  all  of  this  order  which  are  inju- 
rious, or  not  beneficial  to  man.  The  gall-flies,  which  come  next,  when 
very  numerous,  may  do  some  damage  to  vegetation,  but  the  extent  of 
this  is  trifling. 


FIG.  107.    Cherry-slug  (Eriocampa  cerasi).    a,  larva  on  leaf  and 
larva  enlarged ;  b,  adult  saw-fly. 


ENTOMOLOGY    IX    OUTLINE — HYMENOPTERA  111 

Family  Cynipidse  (Gall-flies).  In  this  family  we  have  one  of  the 
mysteries  of  the  natural  world.  Here  we  have  a  minute  insect,  in 
some  cases  almost  microscopic  in  size.  This  insect  will  puncture  a 
twig  or  leaf  of  a  tree,  and  at  once  the  whole  character  of  the  part  so 
punctured  is  changed.  In  the  oaks,  for  instance,  we  see  galls  known  as 
oak  apples,  and  often  they  are  as  large  as  big  apples,  and  these  are 
formed  for  the  purpose  of  supplying  sustenance  to  the  tiny  maggot  of  a 
gall-fly.  What  kind  of  fluid  is  injected  to  cause  this  change?  It  cer- 
tainly is  wonderfully  powerful,  as  the  amount  injected  must  be  so 
infinitely  small  as  to  be  past  our  comprehension,  for  it  is  but  a  part  of 
the  insect  and  this  is  not  large  enough  to  be  noticed.  More  than  this, 
each  species  creates  a  special  kind  of  gall,  and  an  entomologist  can  tell 
what  species  of  insect  did  the  stinging  by  the  shape,  color,  and  general 
appearance  of  these  strange  swellings.  Now,  how  is  it  that  the  plant 
will  accommodate  its  growth  to  the  peculiar  requirements  of  each  one 
of  the  different  species  of  these  minute  insects? 

It  must  not  be  understood,  however,  that  all  the  members  of  this 
family  are  gall-makers,  or  that  there  are  no  galls  caused  by  other 
insects.  In  fact  many  of  the  other  orders  have  gall-makers,  as  the 
aphids,  the  mites,  etc.;  but  there  is  this  difference:  in  other  galls  there 
are  external  openings,  while  in  the  galls  made  by  members  of  this 
family  they  are  closed  and  contain  the  larvae  of  the  insect  until  they 
have  attained  their  growth.  In  some  cases  the  insect  goes  through  its 
transformations  within  the  gall,  and  in  others  it  makes  its  escape  and 
changes  in  the  earth. 

Family  Ichneumonidse.  We  have  now  come  to  a  family  of  especial 
interest  to  the  fruit-growers  and  farmers  of  California  as  well  as  else- 
where, for  in  the  Ichneumonidse  are  found  the  greater  number  of  our 
beneficial  insects;  that  is,  they  are  of  benefit  to  us,  as  they  prey  upon 
species  which  devour  and  destroy  our  vegetable  products.  It  is  to  this 
family  that  Swift's  oft  misquoted  lines  apply: 

"Naturalists  observe,  a  flea 
Hath  smaller  fleas  that  on  him  prey, 
And  these  have  smaller  still  to  bite  'em, 
And  so  proceed  ad  infinitum." 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  there  are  two  classes  of  beneficial 
insects,  the  parasitic  and  the  predaceous.  In  the  latter  the  insect 
pounces  upon  his  victim  wherever  he  catches  him,  that  is,  if  he  happens 
to  be  hungry,  and  devours  him  on  the  spot.  The  parasitic  insects, 
however,  have  a  neater  way  of  doing  business.  In  their  proceedings 
they  are  not  so  coarse  as  the  predaceous  varieties,  although  they 
accomplish  their  work  more  effectively.  They  attach  themselves  early  in 
life — in  fact,  the  mother  usually  brings  about  the  match — and,  once 
attached,  they  remain  until  there  is  nothing  left  of  their  victim  worth 


112 


CALIFORNIA  STATE  COMMISSION  OF  HORTICULTURE. 


bothering  about.  They  are  quiet  and  insidious  in  their  efforts,  but 
never  let  go.  Some  of  them  get  on  the  inside  of  their  host,  in  which 
case  they  eat  him  out  of  house  and  home  before  they  quit;  in  other 
cases  they  take  an  attachment  on  his  outside  and  cling  closer  than  a 
brother  so  long  as  he  has  a  drop  of  blood  in  his  body.  But,  however 
they  do  it,  the  result  is  the  same  to  us;  they  get  away  with  our  foes,  so 
we  declare  them  our  friends.  But,  bearing  out  Swift's  doggerel,  there 
are  other  parasites  on  these — secondaries,  or  hyper- 
parasites,  we  call  them — and  some  parasites  on 
these  again — tertiaries.  So  that,  in  importing  bene- 
ficial insects,  we  are  always  very  careful  to  see 
that  there  are  no  secondaries  to  escape  and  prey 
upon  them  before  they  are  turned  loose.  Usually, 
when  the  egg  is  laid  upon  the  body  of  the  victim 
insect,  as  soon  as  it  is  hatched  the  young  larva  pro- 
ceeds to  work  its  way  to  the  inner  portions  of  its 
host,  where  it  lives 
secure  and  waxes  fat 
on  his  substance.  By 
a  strange  instinct, 
however,  it  carefully 
avoids  the  vital  por- 
tions, and  so  the  host 
insect  lives  in  misery 
until  its  parasite  has 
acquired  its  growth, 
when  it  dies. 

While  some  of  the 
members  of  this  fam- 
ily are  of  small  size, 
many  of  them  are 
large,  for  parasitic  in- 
sects. The  Caliephi- 
lates  messer  Grav.,  of 
which  we  give  an  ex- 
cellent colored  illus- 
tration elsewhere,  is  a  member  of  this  family.  This  is  a  new  species 
in  the  United  States,  introduced  for  work  on  the  codling-moth,  of  which 
it  has  been  found  a  very  effective  parasite. 

The  females  of  some  species  of  this  family  are  remarkable-looking 
insects,  having  an  exaggerated  ovipositor,  which  appears  like  a  long 
tail.  This,  when  folded,  looks  like  one  piece,  but  is  really  composed 
of  three  pieces:  the  ovipositor  proper,  and  two  guards,  which  form  a 
sheath.  The  ovipositor  itself  is  composed  of  three  parallel  pieces,  one 


FIG.  108.  Thalessa  luna- 
tor,  ichneumon  para- 
site of  pigeon  tremex 
(Tremex  columba). 


FIG.  109.  Thalessa  lunator  drilling  a 
hole  in  a  tree-trunk  in  order  to  de- 
posit eggs  in  the  burrow  of  the 
pigeon  tremex  (Tremex  columba). 


ENTOMOLOGY    IN    OUTLINE — HYMENOPTERA. 


113 


above  and  two  below,  joined  together;  near  the  end  they  are  toothed 
like  a  saw,  and  between  them  is  the  egg  passage.  In  the  larger  species, 
the  females  seem  possessed  of  a  special  sense  by  which  they  ascertain 
whether  their  victim  has  already  been  attacked.  If  it  contains  an  egg, 
they  abandon  it  for  another.  This,  for  the  reason  that  the  food  supply 
would  not  be  sufficient  for  two  lar^e  larvae.  With  the  smaller  species, 
however,  it  is  not  uncommon  for  the  female  to  lay  a  number  of  eggs 
on  one  victim.  But  it  is  not  alone  in  their  larval  stage  that  insects 
are  attacked  by  parasites,  for  they  are  subject  to  it  at  any  stage  of  their 
existence,  from  infancy  to  age.  Even  in  the  egg,  they  are  not  immune, 
for  there  are  egg  parasites— minute  insects,  which  lay  their  eggs  within 
the  eggs  of  other  insects,  which  are  eaten  out  by  their  internes. 

The  family  Stephanidse  contains  a  fewr  rare  insects  of  no  importance 
in  this  discussion. 

The  family  Braeonidse,  however,  is  a  different  matter,  for  this  is  a 
very  extensive  family  of,  generally,  very  small  to  medium  sized  insects, 
containing  several  thousand  described  species.  All  are  parasitic  on 

other  insects,  and  in  this  we      

find  many  of  the  secondary 
and  tertiary  parasites.  This 
family,  in  the  older  classifica- 
tions, is  included  in  the  Ich- 
neumonidse,  but  well-defined 
differences  in  the  two  classes 
have  led  to  the  creation  of  the 
new  family  of  Braconida?.  As 
parasitic  insects,  however, 
their  habits  of  life  are  very 
similar,  and  to  their  efforts  is 
largely  due  the  fact  that  we 
are  not  entirely  eaten  out  by 
the  destructive  pests.  One  of 
the  chief  checks  on  the  aphids 
of  our  gardens  is  a  minute 
member  of  this  family,  the 
genus  Aphidiu*.  Examine  *a 
twig  or  leaf  infested  with 
plant-lice,  and  you  will  see 
many  of  them  bloated  and 
white.  Look  closely  and  you 

will  see  a  minute  circular  hole  in  the  abdominal  end.  It  is  from  this 
hole  that  the  insect,  after  having  eaten  out  the  aphis,  and  gone  through 
all  its  changes  on  the  inside  of  the  victim,  has  escaped.  Gather  a  few 

8-E 


FTG.  110.  Tomato-worm  (Phlegethontius  sexta),  bear- 
ing cocoons  of  the  parasitic  Apanteles  congrcfjaitm. 
Natural  size. 


114  CALIFORNIA  STATE  COMMISSION  OF  HORTICULTURE. 

of  these  aphis-infested  leaves  or  twigs,  place  them  in  a  small  vial,  and 
cover  it  with  gauze.  In  a  short  time  you  will  find  numbers  of  a  tiny, 
dark-colored  insect,  looking  like  a  miniature  wasp.  This  is  a  Braconid 
of  the  genus  Aphidins.  There  are  millions  of  them  at  work;  each  one 
eats  an  aphis,  and  afterwards  lays  hundreds  of  eggs  on  other  aphids, 
which,  in  their  turn,  eat  up  their  hosts.  These  insects  of  the  parasitic 
class  are  usually  small,  and  often  so  minute  as  to  escape  observation; 
but  insignificant  as  they  appear,  we  owe  our  very  existence  to  them,  for 
without  their  constant  efforts  we  would  be  reduced  to  a  condition  of 
starvation  by  the  hordes  of  pests,  which,  having  no  checks,  would 
increase  with  enormous  rapidity  and  soon  overwhelm  us  like  a  flood. 

The  family  Evaniidse  is  a  small  one,  closely  connected  with  the 
IchneumonidaB,  but  differing  from  them  in  structural  characters.  Its 
habits  are  similar,  as  it  is  parasitic. 

The  family  Chaleididse  is  an  immense  group,  composed  largely,  but 
not  wholly,  of  parasitic  insects.  As  a  rule,  the  members  of  this  family 
are  exceedingly  small,  many  of  them  being  microscopic,  and  some  even 
requiring  a  high-power  lens  to  bring  them  into  view.  Notwithstanding 

their  minute  size,  however,  they 
rank  among  the  best  friends  the 
fruit-grower  has,  for  they  make  up 
in  numbers  what  they  lack  in  size, 
and  to  the  destructive  pests  of  the 
fruit-grower  they  are  as  "terrible 
as  an  army  with  banners,"  for 
within  the  ranks  of  the  Chalcididrc 

w     i\  W — /    ii\  ig  comprised  the  largest  number  of 

species    of    any    of    the    parasitic 
Hymenoptera,  extending  into  many 
thousands.     The   members  of  this 
FIG.  in.   Tomocera  caiifornica,  &  chaicid  para-  order  are  very  small,  and,  as  a  rule, 

""""  ""*  ^^'  lack  the  attractive  beauty  of  some 
of  the  larger  insects,  and  so  have 
been  much  neglected  by  entomologists.  Dr.  L.  0.  Howard,  Chief  of 
the  Bureau  of  Entomology  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture, has  devoted  much  time  to  the  study  of  this  family,  and  to  him, 
more  than  to  any  one  else,  science  is  indebted  for  its  knowledge  of 
this  interesting  and  valuable  group.  Most  of  the  species  are  parasitic, 
and  most  of  them  confine  their  attacks  to  one  class  of  insects.  Some 
of  them,  unfortunately,  attack  some  of  our  beneficial  insects,  so  that 
they  are  not  wholly  beneficial  from  our  viewpoint. 

In    speaking   of   this   family  Professor  Howard  says:  "Nowhere  in 
nature   is    there    a  more  marked  example  of  the  co-relation  between 


ENTOMOLOGY    IN    OUTLINE — HYMENOPTERA.  115 

structure  and  habits  than  occurs  in  this  family.  This  co-relation 
descends  to  the  relation  between  the  parasites  and  their  hosts,  so  that 
it  is  possible  for  an  experienced  person  on  seeing  a  new  species  of 
Chalcid  fly  to  tell  precisely  what  kind  of  an  insect  it  will  be  found  to 
be  parasitic  upon.  For  example,  the  species  of  the  genus  Coj)idos<>m<i 
are  always  parasitic  within  naked  caterpillars.  Those  of  the  genus 
Both riotho rax  are  always  parasitic  in  small  dipterous  larvae.  The 
economic  importance  of  the  group  is  great.  They  are  the  most  effective 
parasites  of  many  of  our  most  injurious  insects.  For  example,  in 
a  certain  year  in  the  cotton  fields  of  northern  Florida  ninety-five 
per  cent  of  the  eggs  from  which  would  have  hatched  the  voracious 
cotton-caterpillar  were  kitted  by  the  minute  Chalcid  parasite,  Tricho- 
g ram  ma  pretiosa" 

In  our  own  jBtate,  the  different  species  of  this  family  form  one  of  the 
most  efficient  checks  on  scale  pests,  usually  burrowing  into  the  scale 
and  eating  it  out.  How  exceedingly  minute  some  of  them  are  is  indi- 
cated by  the  fact  that  the  red,  yellow,  and  San  Jose  scales  are  all  para- 
sitized by  members  of  this  family,  and,  within  the  bodies  of  these 
insects,  none  of  which  are  larger  than  the  head  of  a  pin,  these  little 
flies  have  ample  room  to  live,  grow,  pass  through  all  their  changes,  and 
emerge  as  perfect  insects.  We  have  often  found  from  three  to  five 
parasites  belonging  to  this  group  snugly  ensconced  within  the  body  of  a 
soft  brown  scale,  and  there  was  ample  room  for  all  without  crowding. 

Some  of  the  Chalcids  attack  larger  insects,  and  the  cabbage- butterfly 
is  largely  kept  down  by  the  efforts  of  one  of  them,  Pteromnlus  puparum, 
which  lays  its  eggs  on  the  caterpillar  and  reduces  it  to  a  state  of 
"innocuous  desuetude."  One  branch  of  the  family  closely  approaches 
the  gall-flies  in  structure  and  habits. 

The  family  ProetotPupidae  contains  the  smallest  members  of  the 
Hymenoptera.  They  are  all  parasitic,  many  of  them  being  parasitic  on 
the  eggs  of  other  insects.  How  small  they  are  may  be  understood  by 
the  statement  that,  in  some  cases,  as  many  as  half-a-dozen  of  them  will 
live  and  pass  through  all  their  changes  wTithin  one  minute  egg  of  an 
insect,  moth,  butterfly,  or  bug-.  Some  live  in  the  larva?  of  other  insects, 
some  exist  wholly  in  the  nervous  system,  others  in  the  digestive  tract. 
The  largest  of  them  is  not  over  one  twenty-fifth  of  an  inch  in  length, 
while  the  smallest  (Alaptus  excisus)  measures  between  six  and  seven 
one-thousandths  of  an  inch. 

Suborder  ACULEATA. 

We  now  come  to  the  second  branch  or  suborder  of  the  Hymenoptera, 
which  includes  the  species  armed  with  stings.  Most  of  our  readers 
have  made  acquaintance  with  them,  as  the  group  includes  the  wasps, 


116  CALIFORNIA  STATE  COMMISSION  OF  HORTICULTURE. 

hornets,  bees,  and  ants.     These  are  divided  into  families  as  follows, 
according  to  Comstock's  classification: 

THE  STINGING  HYMENOPTERA.     Suborder  Aculeata. 
The  Pelecinus.     Family  PelecinidaB. 
The  Cuckoo-flies.     Family  Chrysididse. 
The  Ants.     Superfamily  Formicina. 

Family  Formicidae. 

Family  Poneridse. 

Family  Myrmicidse. 
The  Digger  Wasps.     Superfamily  Sphecina. 

The  Velvet-ants.     Family  MutillidaB. 

The  Scoliids.     Family  Scoliidae. 

The  Sapygids.     Family  Sapygida?. 

The  Spider-wasps.     Family  Pompilidae. 

The  Thread-waisted  Wasps.     Family  SphecidaB. 

The  Ampulicids.     Family  AmpulicidaB. 

The  Larrids.     Family  Larridse. 

The  Bembecids.     Family  Bembecidae. 

The  Nyssonids.     Family  Nyssonidae. 

The  Philanthids.     Family  PhilanthidaB. 

The  Mimesids.     Family  Mimesidse. 

The  Mellinids.     Family  Mellinidse. 

The  Pemphredonids.     Family  Pemphredonidas. 

The  Crabronids.     Family  Crabronidaa. 
The  True  Wasps.     Superfamily  Vespina. 

The  Guest  Wasps.     Family  MasaridaB. 

The  Solitary  Wasps.     Family  Eumenidse. 

The  Social  Wasps.     Family  Vespida?. 
The  Bees.     Superfamily  Apina. 

The  Short-tongued  Bees.     Family  Andrenidse. 

The  Long-tongued  Bees.     Family  Apidse. 

It  is  in  this  suborder  that  we  find  the  fullest  development  of  the 
social  instinct.  With  the  social  bees,  wasps,  and  ants,  every  interest  is 
sacrificed  for  the  good  of  the  community.  Here 

"None  is  for  himself, 
But  all  are  for  the  state." 

None  of  the  members  of  this  suborder  are  of  direct  importance  to  us, 
being  beneficial  only  incidentally.  The  wasps  are  all  predaceous,  many 
of  them  preying  upon  the  larva?  of  injurious  species,  while  the  work  of 
the  bees  is  too  well  known  to  need  enlargement  in  these  pages.  Prob- 
ably Ave  owe  more  to  this  group  for  their  work  in  the  pollenization  of 
plants  and  fruits,  perhaps  in  the  cross-fertilization  of  species— hybrid- 
ization— and  probably  even  the  production  of  new  species,  than  for  any 


ENTOMOLOGY    IN    OUTLINE — HYMENOPTERA.  117 

other  benefits  they  render  us.  Were  it  not  for  their  labors  in  this 
direction,  aided  by  other  insects,  true,  and  perhaps  to  some  extent  by 
other  means,  it  is  not  improbable  that  a  very  large  part  of  the  veg- 
etable world  would  perish  and  man  and  other  members  of  the  animal 
kingdom  suffer  correspondingly.  A  cursory  glance  at  the  various 
families  comprising  this  suborder  is,  therefore,  all  that  is  required  in 
this  place. 

The  family  Pelecinidse  is  a  very  small  one,  in  which  the  distinguish- 
ing peculiarity  is  the  great  length  of  the  abdomen  in  the  female. 

The  family  Chrysididse,  better  known  as  the  cuckoo-flies,  have  the 
habit  of  the  bird  after  which  they  are  named,  of  laying  their  eggs  in  the 
nests  of  other  wasps  and  leaving  them  to  be  fed  by  the  owner  of  the  nest. 
As  the  larva  develops,  it  either  turns  out  the  proper  occupant  of  the 
cell  or  devours  it.  They  are  beautiful  insects,  the  body  being  a  brilliant 
metallic  green. 

Superfamily  Formicina.     (Ants.) 

The  ants  have  been  erected  into  a  superfamily  called  Formicina,  and 
this  superfamily  is  divided  again  into  three  families:  the  Fopmieidse, 
Poneridse,  and  Myrmieidse.  Ants  are  so  distinct  from  all  other  insects, 
and  so  well  known  to  most  people,  that  no  description  is  needed  here. 
There  is  but  one  other  class  of  insects  likely  to  be  mistaken  for  them, 
the  Termites,  which  are  not  ants  at  all,  although  called  "white  ants." 
These  do  not  at  all  resemble  ants  in  appearance,  either  in  form  or  in 
color,  but  being  communistic  insects  have  somewhat  the  habits  of  ants 
in  this  regard.  Termites  resemble  ants  in  the  fact  that  they  congregate 
together  in  immense  numbers,  and  are  divided  into  different  classes, 
each  class  having  separate  and  well-defined  duties  to  perform  in  the 
community.  Aside  from  this  their  habits  are  entirely  different. 

All  the  species  of  ants  are  composed  of  three  classes  of  individuals: 
males,  females  and  neuters,  or  workers,  which  latter  are  really  undevel- 
oped females.  All  ants  live  in  communities  of  greater  or  less  extent, 
and  in  some  cases  these  colonies  are  exceedingly  populous.  By  what 
system  of  laws  these  densely  populated  communities  are  governed  is 
unknown,  but  it  is  known  that  each  class  performs  its  appointed  duties 
without  let  or  hindrance  and  that  all  move  smoothly  and  harmoniously. 
The  workers  perform  all  the  work  of  the  colony,  and  their  numbers 
exceed  the  other  classes  many  times  over.  There  are  usually  several 
perfect  females  whose  sole  duty  is  to  maintain  the  strength  of  the 
colony,  and  for  a  short  time  during  the  early  summer  a  great  number 
of  young  females  and  males  are  produced.  These  quit  the  nest  together, 
never  to  return.  Thev  are  the  ones  which  found  new  colonies,  and  out 


118  CALIFORNIA  STATE  COMMISSION  OF  HORTICULTURE. 

of  thousands  which  start  forth,  vast  numbers  of  them  perish,  falling  a 
prey  to  birds  and  other  causes.  There  is  much  that  is  fascinating  in 
the  life  of  an  ant,  and  these  insects  have  been  a  great  favorite  with 
entomological  students  even  from  the  time  of  Solomon,  as  is  indicated 
by  his  advice:  "Go  to  the  ant,  thou  sluggard;  consider  her  ways  and 
be  wise."  Many  books  have  been  written  of  them,  and  when  we  con- 
sider their  intelligence  and  that  in  many  respects  they  resemble  man, 
it  is  not  strange  that  we  should  be  interested  in  them.  We  find  among 
them  a  perfect  system  of  government;  also  a  highly  specialized 
division  of  labor,  many  of  our  trades  being  represented,  such  as  archi- 
tects, builders,  agriculturists,  tailors,  masons,  and  many  other  trades 
corresponding  to  those  followed  by  man.  The  rare  intelligence  exhib- 
ited by  ants  in  attending  to  and  caring  for  their  young  is  astonishing. 
They  watch  the  eggs  and  larvae  night  and  day,  and  remove  them  from 
place  to  place,  as  they  require  more  or  less  light,  warmth,  and  moisture. 
When  an  ants'  nest  is  disturbed  the  workers  first  of  all  secure  the 
young  and  take  them  to  a  place  of  safety,  this  instinct  being  even 
greater  than  that  of  self-preservation,  for  they  will  risk  the  greatest 
dangers  and  their  own  lives  for  the  eggs  and  cocoons  of  the  young 
insects.  That  they  are  able  to  communicate  and  transmit  intelligence 
is  evident,  too,  and  this  is  done  by  means  of  their  antennae.  They 
play  like  children  when  they  have  leisure,  and  have  so  many  striking 
peculiarities  that  there  is  a  charm  in  them  for  those  who  are  not  inter- 
ested in  entomology. 

They  have,  however,  little  economic  importance,  for,  except  inci- 
dentally, they  are  neither  hurtful  nor  beneficial.  If  anything  rather 
the  former,  as,  in  their  efforts  to  get  the  exudation  of  honey-dew  from 
aphids  and  scale-bugs,  they  often  spread  these  insects  into  new  loca- 
tions, and  they  sometimes  prey  upon  the  soft  larvae  of  some  of  the  lady- 
birds, and  thus  keep  down  our  beneficial  insects.  The  small  red  ant 
found  in  the  house  becomes  a  pest  by  reason  of  its  enormous  numbers, 
which  increase  in  the  summer.  This  is  essentially  a  domestic  species, 
having  its  nests  in  the  walls  and  floors  of  our  houses.  It  is  sometimes 
very  difficult  to  trace  it,  but  usually  by  careful  watching  the  location  of 
the  nest  can  be  found,  when  it  may  be  driven  out  by  the  application  of 
coal  oil  to  the  runways. 

Superfamily  Sphecina.     (Digger-wasps.) 

The  next  superfamily  is  the  Sphecina,  and  is  composed  of  the  solitary 
wasps,  the  digger-wasps,  or  Fo^ores.  This  name  is  given  to  them  from 
the  fact  that  each  female  makes  a  nest  for  herself,  usually  by  bur- 
rowing in  the  ground  or  boring  into  wood.  Some,  as  the  so-called  mud- 
daubers,  construct  tubes,  while  others  use  any  suitable  tunnels  they 
can  find,  or  even  utilize  the  hollow  stems  of  plants,  in  which  to  deposit 


ENTOMOLOGY    IN    OUTLINE  —  HYMENOPTERA.  119 

their  eggs  and  provide  for  their  young.  These  nests  are  usually  pro- 
vided with  food  for  the  young  wasps  in  the  form  of  the  preserved  bodies 
of  other  insects  or  spiders.  Many  species  provision  their  nests  with 
caterpillars,  others  with  spiders.  The  parent  wasp  possesses  some 
kind  of  fluid  which  she  injects  into  the  victim,  and  which  renders  it 
apparently  senseless,  but  which,  instead  of  killing,  preserves  its  life, 
and  it  will  remain  in  this  condition  perfectly  fresh  until  required  by 
the  larva?  of  the  wasps  for  food. 

Comstock  gives  us  fourteen  families  under  the  superfamily  Sphecina, 
to  most  of  which  only  a  passing  allusion'  is  necessary. 

The  family  Mutillidse  are  the  velvet-ants.  The  females  are  wingless 
and  strongly  resemble  ants  in  appearance,  but  their  bodies  are  covered 
with  a  dense  growth  of  hair,  which  has  given  them  their  common  name. 

The  family  Seoliidse  very  strongly  resembles  the  foregoing  family. 
Members  of  this  family  do  not  build  a  burrow,  but  find  the  larvaB  of 
other  insects  in  the  ground,  and  upon  these  they  lay  their  eggs,  which, 
hatching,  consume  the  host  insect.  So  far,  this  wasp  may  be  regarded 
as  beneficial. 

The  family  Sapygidse  is  a  small  one,  the  members  of  which  are 
usually  found  in  the  nests  of  bees.  It  has  no  economic  importance. 

The  family  Pompilidse  includes  about  a  hundred  and  twenty  species, 
and  they  are  commonly  known  as  the  spider-wasps,  on  account  of  their 
habit  of  provisioning  their  nests  with  spiders,  which  they  sting  and 
reduce  to  a  dormant  condition.  They  are  generally  slender  insects 
with  long  legs,  and  usually  brilliantly  colored  and  beautifully  marked. 
While  generally  of  moderate  size,  some  of  the  species  are  very  large, 
and  here  we  find  the  well-known  tarantula-hawk  (Pepsis  formosa-). 

The  family  Spheeidse  comprises  the  thin-waisted  wasps,  and  includes 
the  well-known  mud-daubers.  These  are  commonly  known  as  the 
thread-waisted  wasp,  on  account  of  the  thin,  thread-like  process  which 
connects  the  abdomen  with  the  thorax,  and  which  is  composed  of  the 
first  two  segments  of  the  abdomen.  This  family  is  a  very  conspicuous 
one  and  embraces  about  seventy  species  in  the  United  States,  most  of 
them  well  known  from  their  peculiar  form  and  habits.  They  build 
their  cells  from  mud,  and  stock  them  with  spiders  or  caterpillars,  after 
first  depositing  an  egg  in  the  bottom.  When  hatched,  the  young  larva 
finds  an  abundance  of  preserved  food  awaiting  it,  and  remains  in  the 
cell  until  it  has  passed  through  all  the  changes,  when  it  emerges  a 
perfect  insect. 


120  CALIFORNIA  STATE  COMMISSION  OF  HORTICULTURE. 

The  family  Larridse  is  composed  of  moderate-sized  insects,  which 
frequent  sandy  locations. 

The  family  Bembeeidse  includes  some  of  the  larger  forms  of  this  order 
They  make  their  nests  in  burrows,  which  they  excavate  in  sandy  places, 
and  store  them  with  flies.  The  larger  species  attack  cicadas,  and  one 
may  often  be  seen  carrying  away  a  cicada  larger  than  itself. 

The  families  Nyssonidse  and  Philanthidse  are  two  groups  of  insects 
having  the  same  general  characters  and  habits  as  the  foregoing,  but 
differing  in  points  of  structure  and  wing  venation. 

The  families  Mimesidse,  Pemphredonidse,  and  Crabronidse  are  rather 
borers  than  diggers,  although  classed  with  the  digger-wasps.  They 
usually  burrow  into  the  stems  of  pithy  shrubs  and  form  their  nests 
therein.  As  in  all  the  other  members  of  this  order,  these  nests  are 
stored  with  the  preserved  remains  of  other  insects,  so  that  all  may  be 
classed  as  beneficial. 

Superfamily  Vespina.     (True  Wasps.) 

The  true  wasps  are  included  in  three  families,  grouped  together  in 
the  superfamily  Vespina.  Insects  belonging  to  this  superfamily  are  all 
winged,  and  when  at  rest  fold  their  wings  lengthwise  like  a  fan.  The 
legs  are  not  suited  for  burrowing.  It  is  in  this  superfamily  that  we 
find  the  paper-wasps  and  nest-builders. 

The  three  families  under  this  group  are  the  Masaridse,  the  Eumenidse, 
and  the  Vespidse.  The  first  of  these  is  a  small  family  of  no  impor- 
tance in  this  place. 

The  second  is  a  family  of  solitary  wasps,  the  members  of  which  vary 
in  their  habits,  some  being  builders  and  some  burrowers.  Some  of 
them  build  nests  of  mud,  while  others' bore  tunnels  into  wood  in  order 
to  provide  for  their  young. 

The  third  family  is  of  more  interest,  as  it  includes  the  social  wasps, 
the  nest-builders,  and  paper-makers.  It  is  here  that  we  find  our  well- 
known  friends,  the  yellowjackets.  These  belong  to  the  genus  Ve^pa, 
and  most  of  our  readers,  especially  those  who  live  in  or  have  been  in 
the  country,  are  very  familiar  with  their  appearance  and  not  unfamiliar 
with  their  mode  of  defense.  Their  nests,  which  are  sometimes  attached 
to  buildings,  trees,  or  fences,  are  made  of  paper,  and  are  very  elaborate 
specimens  of  architecture.  Being  social  insects  they  accomplish  some 
great  works,  and  it  is  no  uncommon  thing  to  find  one  of  these  nests 
as  large  as  a  water-bucket.  Sometimes  they  make  their  nests  under- 
ground, either  excavating  a  hole  for  the  purpose,  or  taking  possession 
of  one  already  formed. 


ENTOMOLOGY    IX    OUTLINE — HYMENOPTERA.  121 

Superfamily  Apina.     (Bees.) 

We  now  come  to  the  bees,  the  last  and  highest  of  the  Hymenoptera. 
It  is  here  that  we  find  the  greatest  intelligence  displayed  in  the  insect 
world.  No  insect  has  been  so  thoroughly  studied  as  the  bee.  Books 
and  libraries  have  been  written  about  bees,  and  the  most  wonderful 
stories  told  of  their  intelligence,  which  would  seem  to  far  exceed  any- 
thing we  can  call  instinct  and  to  closely  approach  human  reason.  They 
present  to  us  the  highest  known  type  of  social  life,  and  the  most  perfect 
form  of  government. 

Bees  have  been  placed  under  the  superfamily  Apina,  which  is  divided 
into  two  families,  the  Andrenidse  and  the  Apidse,  or  the  short-  and 
the  long-tongued  bees.  The  habits  of  members  of  the  different  families 
vary  greatly.  Some  are  solitary,  making  a  nest  for  themselves,  and 
storing  it  with  honey  and  pollen.  Others  can  live  only  in  communities. 
Some  are  very  small,  one  of  the  mining-bees  measuring  but  from  one 
hundredth  to  three  hundredths  of  an  inch  in  length. 

So  far  as  relates  to  agriculture,  bees  are  beneficial.  They  are  not 
parasitic,  like  some  of  the  other  families  of  the  order,  although  there  are 
some  bees  parasitic  on  others,  but  in  their  work  of  gathering  honey 
they  are  one  of  the  greatest  agencies  in  nature  in  the  fertilization  of 
plants. 

Many  species  of  both  families  are  troubled  by  parasitic  or  cuckoo 
bees.  These  build  no  nest  for  themselves,  but  look  out  for  a  nest  of  the 
mason,  carpenter,  or  other  bee.  When  she  discovers  one  at  work,  she 
watches,  and  as  fast  as  the  cells  are  completed,  lays  an  egg  at  the 
bottom.  This  egg  hatches  before  the  egg  of  the  rightful  owner,  and 
the  larva  of  the  intruder  proceeds  to  eat  the  provisions  stored  by  the 
careful  mother  of  the  rightful  owner,  and  finally  consummates  its  evil 
work  by  eating  the  young  of  the  nest-builder. 

Of  the  social  bees,  including  the  honey-bee,  little  need  be  said  here, 
as  the  subject  is  too  great  to  be  handled  in  a  few  pages,  and  our  object 
is  merely  to  draw  attention  to  the  science  of  entomology,  not  to  enlarge 
upon  it,  and  also  to  draw  special  attention  to  those  families  which  are 
either  directly  beneficial  or  injurious  to  our  orchards. 

The  foregoing  will  serve  to  give  our  readers  some  general  idea  of  the 
important  science  of  Entomology.  As  stated  at  the  commencement, 
the  work  is  not  designed  to  be  thorough  in  any  respect,  and  pretends 
only  to  give  an  introduction  to  this  great  science.  Those  of  our  readers 
who  wish  to  follow  it  to  a  greater  extent  are  referred  to  the  following 
works : 

"Entomology  for  Beginners,"  by  A.  S.  Packard;  "American  Insects," 
by  Vernon  L.  Kellogg;  "Manual  for  the  Study  of  Insects,"  by  John 

9— E 


122  CALIFORNIA  STATE  COMMISSION  OF  HORTICULTURE. 

Henry  Comstock;  "Economic  Entomology,"  by  John  B.  Smith;  "The 
Insect  Book,"  by  L.  0.  Howard;  "The  Moth  Book"  and  "  The  Butterfly 
Book,"  by  W.  J.  Holland,  and  "Entomology,  with  Special  Reference  to 
its  Biological  and  Economic  Aspects,"  by  Justus  Watson  Folsom. 

Very  many  other  excellent  works  on  entomology  might  be  recom- 
mended, but  the  above  or  any  of  them  will  be  found  valuable  to  the 
student  of  this  science.  In  addition  to  these  are  the  many  excellent 
publications  issued  from  time  to  time  by  the  Federal  Government,  which 
can  be  secured  by  the  student  upon  application. 


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APR    8  ]' 

MAR  2  a  1937 
SEP  27  1940 
MOV  2  0*955 
NOV  2  0 1955 
NOV  1 1  1970 


50m-7,'29 


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